CONCRETE  ON  THE  FA 
IN  Tm 

(JAM FEE i 


'•^^^^P^^^WxV^y^Xm/WVV^KAWVWWWUK/. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM 

AND 

IN1  THE  SHOP 


A  COMPLETE  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  COMMONEST  EVERY-DAY 
USES  OP  C6NCRETE.     WRITTEN  IN  PLAIN  ENGLISH,  SO  THAT 
THE  INEXPERIENCED  PERSON  DESIRING  TO  UNDERTAKE  A 
PIECE  OP  CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION  CAN,  BY  FOL- 
LOWING THE  DIRECTIONS  GIVEN,  SECURE  SUCCESS. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  TANKS,  TROUGHS,  CISTERNS, 
FENCE  POSTS.  STABLE  FLOORS.  HOTBEDS,  HOG  WAL- 
LOWS, WALLS,  FOUNDATIONS,  PANEL  FENCES,  FEEDING 
FLOORS,  AND  ALL  THE  PURPOSES  FOR  WHICH  CONCRETE 
is  AN  INVALUABLE  AID  TO  THE  FARMER  ARE  INCLUDED 


BY 

H.  COLIN  CAMPBELL,  C.E.,  E.M. 

Contributing  Editor,  Cement  World  and  American  Carpenter  and  Builder 
Member,  Editorial  Staff,  Farm  Engineering 


VERY  FULf^Y 


NEW  YORK 

THE  NORMAN  W.    HENLEY  PUBLISHING  CO. 

132  NASSAU  STREET 

1916 


COPYRIGHTED,  19 1G 

BY 
THE  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  PUBLISHING  CO. 


AGRIC,  DEPT. 

WAIN  LIBRARY 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 5 

GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  CONCRETE  PRINCIPLES 9 

AGGREGATES 12 

PRINCIPLES  OF  PROPORTIONING 15 

MIXING  CONCRETE 18 

PLACING  CONCRETE - 27 

PROTECTION  AFTER  PLACING 29 

COLD  WEATHER  CONCRETING 30 

RECOMMENDED  MIXTURES 33 

FORMS 38 

CONCRETING  TOOLS 49 

FOUNDATIONS 55 

PRINCIPLES  OF  REINFORCING 66 

MATERIALS  FOR  REINFORCING 66 

WALLS  AND  FENCES 73 

POSTS 81 

RUBBLE  CONCRETE 96 

TANKS  AND  TROUGHS 101 

CISTERNS ' 107 

FORM  REMOVAL .  113 

HOG  WALLOW 113 

MANURE  PIT 115 

REPAIRS  OF  LEAKS  IN  TANKS,  ETC 117 

HOTBEDS 121 

ROOFS  FOR  SMALL  BUILDINGS 125 

PAVEMENTS,  FEEDING  FLOORS,  AND  WALKS 129 

STEPS 136 

WELL  CURBS  AND  PLATFORMS 141 

3 


/I  A  O  O  f 


INTRODUCTORY 

WITHIN  recent  years  there  has  been  increas- 
ing attention  given  to  the  use  of  concrete  as  a 
building  material.  Nowhere  has  this  interest  been 
relatively  greater  than  on  the  farm.  The  appeal 
of  concrete  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  care  and 
faithful  observance  of  fundamental  principles 
enable  a  large  portion  of  the  actual  labor  to  be 
performed  by  those  who  are  relatively  unskilled. 
The  increasing  cost  of  lumber  has  made  concrete 
not  only  a  formidable  competitor  but  successful 
rival.  Not  only  is  this  true  but  those  who  have 
once  used  concrete  have  come  to  a  realization 
that  in  the  concrete  structure  expensive  upkeep  is 
eliminated.  There  is  no  longer  the  continual  an- 
nual outlay  for  repairing,  painting,  straightening 
up,  and  rebuilding  or  patching  the  work  to  put  it 
into  condition  equal  to  new,  or  to  maintain  it  in 
serviceable  condition. 

Concrete  is  also  fireproof.  This  is  another 
strong  appeal.  On  the  farm  fireproof  construc- 
tion is  doubly  advantageous  since  the  country 
dweller  is  without  the  protection  which  his  city 
friend  enjoys;  namely,  the  well-equipped  and 
usually  efficient  fire  department.  But  concrete  in 
town  is  just  as  good  as  in  the  country.  Another 
advantage  comes  from  the  sanitation  resulting 

5 


6  ^INTRODUCTORY 

where  concrete  construction  is  properly  applied. 
Feeding  floors,  hog  wallows,  watering  troughs,  all 
do  their  share  on  the  farm — and  it  is  a  large  one 
—toward  preventing  the  filthy  conditions  that  in 
a  large  percentage  of  cases  are  responsible  for 
the  epidemic  stock  diseases  which  annually  exact 
a  costly  toll  from  farmers  throughout  the  country. 
There  are  concrete  books  galore.  No  apology 
need  be  made  for  this  one.  The  concrete  worker 
who  so  far  has  met  with  scant  success,  will  learn 
the  "why"  by  carefully  reading  and  following  its 
message.  The  engineer  or  contractor  thoroughly 
experienced  in  concrete  work  may  find  but  little 
to  interest  him  in  this  book.  He  will  say  that  he 
has  heard  all  of  these  subjects  discussed  before. 
Perhaps,  however,  he  has  not  heeded  many  of  the 
cautions  which  the  writer  has  endeavored  to  put 
into  plain  language  and  which  he  knows  are  es- 
sential to  success.  In  that  respect  the  book  may 
profit  the  engineer  or  contractor  who  heeds.  It 
has,  however,  been  primarily  prepared  with  the 
beginner  first  in  mind — the  man  who  knows  noth- 
ing of  concrete  but  wants  to  learn. 

Concrete  ordinarily  is  a  technical  subject  and 
most  writers  have  described  the  methods  of  using 
it  in  high-sounding  terms  which  are  beyond  the 
understanding  of  the  average  man  without  some 
engineering  or  construction  experience.  The 
writer  has  endeavored  to  translate  technical  ex-' 
pressions  and  technical  terms  into  plain  everyday 
English,  that  any  one  who  can  read  can  under-' 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

stand.  Simple  drawings  accompany  the  text.  In 
some  cases  these  are  purposely  exaggerated  to 
better  show  what  is  meant.  In  many  cases  con- 
struction illustrated  by  drawings  is  shown  in  a 
reproduction  of  photograph  illustrating  the  work 
in  progress  or  completed. 

In  the  limited  space  of  this  booklet  not  all  of 
the  possibilities  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm  and  in 
the  Shop  could  be  dwelt  upon.  The  fundamentals 
of  concreting,  however,  have  been  presented  at 
some  length,  and  these  apply  regardless  of  the 
construction.  The  examples  used  for  purpose  of 
illustration,  that  is,  the  various  types  of  construc- 
tion described,  are  such  as  to  give  the  beginner 
who  follows  all  directions  the  necessary  experience 
to  undertake  more  pretentious  uses  of  concrete. 

THE  AUTHOB. 

March,  1916. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND 
.  IN  THE  SHOP 

WHAT  CONCRETE  IS,   HOW  IT   SHOULD   BE 
MADE,  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  USES 

GENERAL 

INCKEASIXG  interest  in  the  advantages  of  per- 
manent, fireproof  and  sanitary  construction  has 
resulted  in  recognition  of  the  adaptability  of  con- 
crete for  most  buildings  required  upon  the  farm. 
Here  its  range  of  use  is  almost  unlimited ;  barns, 
hog  houses,  poultry  houses,  dairy  buildings,  silos, 
watering  troughs  and  tanks,  feeding  floors,  barn 
floors,  foundations — practically  all  types  of  farm 
building  construction — seem  to  be  best  solved  by 
proper  application  of  concrete. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  have  been 
volumes  written  concerning  the  uses  of  concrete, 
a  great  deal  of  the  so-called  information  scattered 
broadcast  has  been  simply  the  recounting  of  in- 
dividual practices  and  experiences,  which  have 
not  by  any  means  always  represented  what  those 
best  qualified  to  know  would  endorse  as  correct 
methods  of  using  concrete.  Too  often  those  who 
attempt  concrete  construction  act  upon  the  im- 
pression that  a  little  cement  a  little  sand,  gravel 

9 


10  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

and  water,  then  a  few  turnings  with  the  shovel, 
and  presto!  the  trick  is  done.  This  is  far  from 
the  truth. 


WHAT  CONCRETE  IS 

Concrete  consists  of  a  certain  quantity  of 
broken  stone  or  gravel  of  properly  graded  sizes, 
firmly  bound  together  by  a  mortar  consisting  of 
Portland  cement,  sand  and  water.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  composite  product,  a  manufactured  one,  so  to 
speak,  therefore  success  in  the  use  of  concrete 
involves  observance  of  certain  established  require- 
ments of  selection  and  mixing  of  ingredients,  and 
proper  placing. 

Like  the  black  man  and  the  red  man,  Portland 
cement's  identity  was  established  through  color. 
It  looks  like  the  Portland  stone  of  England;  but 
nowadays  when  Portland  cement  is  spoken  of, 
only  the  manufactured  product  is  meant.  Natural 
cements  are  not  suited  to  the  general  run  of  con- 
crete construction. 


WHAT  PORTLAND  CEMENT  IS 

Portland  cement  is  a  carefully  manufactured 
product,  consisting  principally  of  lime,  silica  and 
aluminum  oxide.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
user  should  know  the  exact  nature  of  its  ingre- 
dients nor  just  how  they  are  combined.  There 
are  so  many  reputable  manufacturers  of  Port- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  11 

land  cement  in  the  country  to-day  that  the  person 
contemplating  concrete  construction  need  not 
concern  himself  with  the  process  of  manufacture. 
All  he  need  do  is  to  inform  himself  as  to  the 
known  reliability  of  any  particular  brand  he 
contemplates  using.  This  can  be  done  by  cor- 
responding with  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  or  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards,  both  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  if 
the  reply  received  indicates  that  the  particular 
brand  conforms  to  established  engineering  re- 
quirements he  will  be  safe  in  using  that  brand. 

TESTING   CEMENT 

The  testing  of  cement  is  a  science  in  itself 
that  requires  experience  and  skill  acquired  only 
in  laboratories  with  special  equipment,  and  the 
user  need  not  concern  himself  with  tests  if  he 
has  been  properly  assured  that  the  particular 
brand  is  known  to  meet  with  the  requirements 
mentioned. 

If  cement  is  properly  stored  before  use  by  being 
protected  against  the  possibility  of  absorbing 
moisture,  it  wifl  keep  a  long  time.  It  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry  shed,  piled  on  a  tight  board  floor 
that  is  raised  several  inches  above  the  ground. 
Any  cement  containing  lumps  that  cannot  be  easily 
crushed  between  the  fingers  has  probably  been 
exposed  to  dampness.  The  lumps  should  always 
be  discarded. 

Portland  cement  is  usually  sold  packed  in  cloth 


12  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

or  paper  sacks,  each  containing  94  pounds  net. 
Four  such  sacks  constitute  a  barrel.  A  sack  of 
cement  is  considered  one  cubic  foot. 

AGGREGATES  DEFINED 

Aggregates  is  the  term  used  to  refer  in  a 
general  way  to  the  sand,  stone  screenings,  gravel, 
broken  stone  such  as  granite  and  slag,  or  what- 
ever other  rock  material  is  used  to  mix  with  the 
cement  to  form  concrete.  Sand  is  usually  re- 
ferred to  as  the  fine  aggregate.  For  convenience, 
sand  is  described  as  a  clean  rock  material  free 
from  clay,  loam  or  other  foreign  substances  and 
ranging  in  size  from  the  fine  particles  up  to  those 
which  will  just  pass  a  screen  having  i-inch 
square  meshes.  (Four  meshes  to  the  linear  inch 
or  16  meshes  to  the  square  inch.) 

Gravel,  usually  called  coarse  aggregate,  is  de- 
fined as  clean  rock  material,  such  as  pebbles, 
ranging  in  size  from  i  inch  up  to  1,  11  or  2 
inches,  depending  on  which  maximum  size  of 
particles  would  be  allowable  for  the  particular 
concrete  work.  As  a  rule,  11  inches  is  the  maxi- 
mum size  specified  for  gravel  or  Kroken  stone  ag- 
gregate in  most  concrete  construction: 

IMPORTANCE  OF  CLEAN  MATERIALS 
Gravel  or  broken  stone  used  as  coarse  aggre- 
gate also  must  be  free  from  clay,  loam  or  other 
foreign  materials.     The  presence  of  these  in  any 
considerable  quantity,  usually  fixed  at  from  three 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  13 

to  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  is  likely  to  be 
injurious  in  concrete  mixtures.  Such  foreign 
materials  not  only  affect  the  strength  of  the  re- 
sulting concrete,  but  exert  an  influence  on  its  ten- 
dency to  harden,  sometimes  delaying  hardening 
so  that  the  mass  will  not  acquire  any  considerable 
strength  for  perhaps  a  number  of  days. 

BANK-RUN  GRAVEL  NOT  SUITABLE 

The  fact  that  nature  has  been  very  lavish  with 
its  distribution  of  sand  and  gravel,  has  led  many 
users  of  concrete  to  think  that  bank-run  material, 
that  is,  combined  sand  and  gravel  as  dug  out  of  a 
so-called  gravel  bank  or  pit,  makes  suitable  ag- 
gregate for  concrete.  This  is  not  correct,  and  has 
been  responsible  for  much  unsatisfactory  con- 
crete construction,  especially  for  the  large 
amount  of  leaky  and  porous  concrete. 

Bank-run  material  almost  invariably  consists 
of  too  large  a  percentage  of  sand — usually  twice 
as  much  sand  as  gravel — and  for  good  concrete, 
the  proportions  should  be  practically  the  reverse. 
It  is  always  economy  to  screen  bank-run  material 
(see  Fig.  1),  separating  the  fine  material  (sand) 
from  the  coarse  (pebbles)  by  passing  over  a  quar- 
ter-inch mesh  screen  so  that  the  two  volumes 
(sand  and  gravel)  can  be  reproportioned  suitably 
for  the  particular  construction. 

Many  persons  who  have  done  concrete  work 
will  be  inclined  to  question  the  truth  of  this  state- 


14  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

ment,  but  they  should  at  once  make  a  few  ex- 
periments and  convince  themselves  of  its  truth. 
A  1:2:4  mixture,  for  instance,  which  means  1 
sack  (1  cubic  foot)  of  Portland  cement,  2  cubic 
feet  of  well-graded  sand  and  4  cubic  feet  of  well- 
graded  gravel  or  broken  stone,  will,  when  prop- 


FIG.  1. — Screening  Bank-run  Gravel. 


erly  combined  and  mixed  with  water,  form  ^a 
bulk  slightly  exceeding  4  cubic  feet.  This  proves 
that  the  sand  has  gone  to  fill  up  the  voids  (air 
spaces)  between  the  particles  of  gravel  and  that 
the  cement  has  gone  to  fill  up  the  voids  (air 
spaces)  between  the  particles  of  sand.  If  instead 
of  using  a  definitely  proportioned  1:2:4  mixture 
the  concrete  worker  were  to  take  1  sack  of  cement* 


CONCRETE  QN  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  15 

and  mix  it  with  6  cubic  feet  of  material  as  coming 
from  the  gravel  bank,  he  would  then  have  6  cubic 
feet  of  concrete  containing  1  sack  of  cement  as 
against  slightly  over  4  cubic  feet  containing  the 
same  quantity  of  cement.  It  should  require  but  a 
moment's  thought  to  prove  that  the  1:2:4  mix- 
ture contained  proportionately  more  cement,  hence 
should  be  a  stronger,  denser  mixture.  This  is 
true.  It  might  require  several  sacks  of  cement  to 
make  the  mixture  containing  6  feet  of  natural 
bank-run  material  as  strong  as  the  1:2:4  mixture. 
Therefore,  it  should  be  seen  that  true  economy 
follows  correct  proportioning  of  materials. 

PRINCIPLES    OF   PROPORTIONING   CON- 
CRETE MIXTURES 

Correct  proportioning  is  based  on  the  following 
conditions:  voids  or  air  spaces  must  be  filled; 
every  particle  of  sand  must  be  coated  with  cement 
and  every  pebble  of  gravel  or  particle  of  broken 
stone  must  be  coated  with  sand-cement  mortar. 
Both  strength  and  density,  consequently  water- 
tightness  in  finished  concrete  construction,  are 
dependent  largely  upon  careful  proportioning  of 
materials. 

Several  methods  of  proportioning  are  practiced, 
but  all  consist  essentially  of  ascertaining  the  per- 
centage or  bulk  of  voids  or  air  spaces  in  the 
coarse  material  (pebbles  or  broken  stone)  to  be 
filled  by  the  finer  material  (sand),  then  ascertain- 


16  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

ing  the  percentage  of  voids  or  air  spaces  in  the 
combined  sand  and  pebbles  to  be  filled  by  cement. 
Therefore,  when  definite  mixtures  are  specified 
for  any  construction,  best  results  cannot  follow  if 
instead  of  the  separate  and  definite  volumes  of 
sand  and  gravel  called  for,  a  bank-run  material 
of  the  same  total  volume  is  substituted. 


HARD,  DURABLE  AGGREGATES  NECESSARY 

In  addition  to  being  free  from  the  foreign  sub- 
stances mentioned,  both  sand  and  gravel  or  what- 
ever aggregate  is  used,  must  be  hard  and  durable. 
Flat,  soft,  shale-like  pieces  of  stone  cannot  be 
combined  in  a  concrete  mixture  so  as  to  produce 
concrete  of  great  density  and  strength,  nor 
watertightness. 

WASHING  AGGREGATES 

One  of  the  simplest  arrangements  for  washing 
sand  and  gravel  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  -consists 
merely  of  a  trough  into  which  water  is  intro- 
duced by  a  pipe  or  hose  at  the  higher  end,  where 
the  sand  and  gravel  are  shoveled  in  also.  The 
action  of  the  water  upon  them  as  they  roll  over 
and  over  while  descending  the  trough  is  such  that 
they  become  thoroughly  washed  and  the  sand 
passes  through  the  screen  at  the  lower  end,  while 
the  gravel  is  deposited  in  a  pile  at  the  open  end 
of  the  trough  beyond  the  screen. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  17 

A  washing  platform  or  box  like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  can  be  arranged  for  by  making  a  frame  of  2 


..-•Sideboard 


NOTE:  Bottom  Board  2"xl2" 
S/de2"x6" 


,  Screen 


Dirty  wafer  l^SSJZrfa 
and  sand . .  .,'•  >''';'-'!;::,'\; .';/ 
Platform  '^^^••••••^ 


E   1  e  v  a  t  i  o  n 


Screen  . 


Plan 


FIG.  2. — Combined  Trough  and  Screen  for  Washing  Sand  and  Gravel. 


FIG.  3. — Simple  Washing  Platform  to  Wash  Sand  and  Gravel/ 

by  6-inch  lumber  around  a  tight  bottom,  then  rais- 
ing up  this  platform  slightly  at  one  end,  shoveling 
the  sand  and  gravel  to  be  washed  upon  it  at  the 


18  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

high  end  and  turning  against  them  a  strong 
stream  from  a  hose,  stirring  the  materials  about 
while  the  water  is  being  applied.  Any  clay  or 
loam  will  be  carried  away  in  suspension  in  the 
water  and  will  overflow  with  it  at  the  low  end  of 
the  platform  or  box: 

CLEAN,    PURE   WATER   NECESSARY 

Another  requirement  is  that  the  water  used  to 
mix  the  several  materials  shall  also  be  clean. 
The  best  specification  for  mixing  water  is  to  say 
that  water  which  is  good  to  drink  is  best  for  con- 
crete. Any  considerable  amount  of  clay  making 
the  water  "cloudy"  is  just  as  injurious  to  a  con- 
crete mixture  as  though  this  clay  were  on  the 
particles  of  sand  and  gravel.  Water  containing 
an  excess  of  alkali  or  any  oil  is  also  objection- 
able. Eemember,  therefore,  to  use  clean,  pure 
water  in  mixing  the  concrete — water  that  you 
would  not  be  afraid  to  drink. 

MIXING  CONCRETE 

Concrete  may  be  mixed  by  hand,  but  by  far  the 
better  way  is  to  use  a  power-operated  batch 
mixer,  as  this  insures  a  more  thorough  and  uni- 
form combination  of  the  several  materials.  Power- 
operated  mixers  that  will  meet  the  rural  worker 's 
needs  can  be  purchased  with  self-contained  gaso- 
line engines  for  as  little  as  $70  or  $75,  and  for  any 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  19 

one  contemplating  a  considerable  amount  of  con- 
crete construction,  they  represent  a  wise  invest- 
ment that  will  eliminate  most  of  the  labor  where 
much  concrete  is  to  be  mixed.  Many  farmers  have 
found  it  advantageous  to  combine  co-operatively 
in  purchasing  such  an  equipment,  then  to  charge 
each  person  so  much  per  day  for  the  use  of  the 
outfit,  thus  eventually  absorbing  its  cost  among 
them. 

HOME-MADE  CONCRETE  MIXER 

Home-made  concrete  mixers  have  been  con- 
structed by  attaching  cubical  boxes  to  a  shaft  of 
gas  pipe,  and  revolving  the  box  by  a  pulley  at- 
tached to  the  shaft  belt  driven  by  a  gasoline 
engine.  To  obtain  best  results  from  a  cubical 
drum  without  placing  interior  vanes  or  deflectors 
inside  the  box,  the  shaft  on  which  it  is  mounted 
should  not  extend  exactly  from  corner  to  corner 
of  the  cube  but  so  that  the  cube  will  be  hung  "off 
center, "  thus  giving  a  sort  of  zigzag  motion  to 
the  contents  of  the  box  while  it  is  being  revolved. 

In  mixing  concrete  in  the  proportion  1:2:3,  6 
cubic  feet  of  loose  materials  are  required  for  a 
one-bag  batch,  while  in  a  leaner  mixture  such  as 
a  1:3:5,  9  cubic  feet  of  loose  materials -are  put 
into  the  mixer.  Mixing  batches  as  large  as  these 
in  a  box  or  drum  operated  by  a  gasoline  engine 
requires  that  the  construction  be  very  rigid. 
The  box  should  be  3  feet  in  each  dimension,  so  will 
have  a  volume  capacity  of  1  cubic  yard.  Best 


20  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

results  in  mixing  are  secured  when  the  mixer 
cube  or  drum  is  not  over  -j  full.  Gears  should 
be  arranged  so  that  the  drum  may  be  revolved 
at  a  proper  speed.  If  revolved  too  slowly,  too 
long  a  time  will  be  required  for  mixing,  and  if 


FIG.  4. — Home-made  Concrete  Mixer,  Rear  View. 

revolved  too  rapidly  the  materials  will  tend  to 
cling  to  the  sides  of  the  box  or  drum  and  will 
therefore  not  be  tumbled  about  enough  to  insure 
thorough  mixing. 

Two  types  of  home-made  mixers  are  shown  in 
accompanying  reproduction  of  photographs,  Figs. 


FIG.  5. — Another  View  of  the  Mixer  Shown  in  Fig.  4. 


FIG.  6. — Home-made  Barrel  Mixer.     Hand  or  Power  Operated. 

21 


22  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

4,  5,  6  and  7.  One  of  these  is  cylindrical  in  shape 
and  was  made  of  two  round  board  heads  fitted 
into  a  drum  frame  which  was  composed  of  nar- 
row boards  of  the  desired  length,  bolted  to  two 
old  wagon  tires.  The  other  home-made  mixer 


FIG.  7,— Showing  How  the  Barrel  may  be  Dumped. 


consists  of  a  barrel  mounted  on  a  suitable  frame 
and  fitted  with  a  set  of  gear  castings  which  are 
so  connected  to  a  shaft  with  pulley,  as  to  be 
operated*  by  a  belt  driven  by  gasoline  engine. 
This  mixer  can  be  hand  driven  also.  The  frame, 
as  will  be  seen,  has  been  made  so  that  the  barrel 
can  be  tilted  after  mixing  has  been  completed  to 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    23 

dump  the  concrete  into  a  wheelbarrow  for  trans- 
ferring to  where  it  is  to  be  used. 

In  machine  mixing  it  is  desirable  to  revolve  the 
mixer  at  least  one  minute  after  all  materials,  in- 
cluding the  mixing  water,  have  been  placed  in  the 
drum.  One  and  one-half  minutes  would  be  better. 


HAND  MIXING 

The  greater  portion  of  home-made  concrete  is 
mixed  by  hand.  In  such  cases  a  watertight  plat- 
form (Fig.  8)  should  be  provided.  This  should 
be  made  of  smooth  1J  or  2-inch  boards,  prefer- 
ably tongued  and  grooved  so  that  the  platform 
will  be  tight  to  prevent  water  carrying  away 
cement  by  leaking  through  cracks  during  mixing 
of  materials. 

MEASURING  MATERIALS 

A  practical  method  of  measuring  materials  is 
to  use  a  bottomless  box:  This  box  may  be  made 
to  hold  either  1  cubic  foot  or  4  cubic  feet.  In 
the  latter  case  there  should  be  marks  on  the  in- 
terior indicating  levels  for  1,  2  and  3  cubic  feet. 
(Cement  need  not  be  measured  as  1  sack  (94 
pounds)  is  considered  1  cubic  foot.)  The  measur- 
ing box  is  first  set  on  the  mixing  platform,  and 
when  the  required  amount  of  sand  has  been 
measured,  the  sand  is  spread  out  in  a  layer  on  the 
mixing  platform.  Next  the  cement  is  spread  over 


24  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  25 

the  sand  in  a  thin  layer.  Square-pointed  shovels 
are  used  to  turn  the  cement  and  sand  several  times 
until  the  mixture  is  of  a  uniform  color,  disap- 
pearance of  brown  and  grey  streaks  indicating 
thorough  mixing  of  the  mass.  Then  the  gravel  or 
crushed  stone,  first  thoroughly  wet,  is  measured 
and  spread  in  a  layer  on  top  of  the  cement  and 
sand  and  all  of  the  materials  again  turned  with 
shovels.  A  depression  is  then  shoveled  in  the 
center  of  the  pile  and  water  is  added  while  pre- 
ferably two  men  turn  the  mass  thoroughly.  If 
running  water  is  available  the  water  should  be 
sprayed  from  a  hose  to  avoid  washing  away  the 
cement.  At  any  rate  it  should  be  added  gently, 
shoveling  being  carried  on  while  water  is  added 
and  continued  until  the  entire  batch  is  of  a  uni- 
form consistency  and  color.  This  will  generally 
require  that  at  least  three  turnings  be  given  the 
materials  after  the  necessary  amount  of  water 
has  been  added. 

Thorough  hand  mixing  will  produce  a  good 
concrete  mixture,  but  the  labor  involved  is  con- 
siderable if  much  concrete  work  is  planned,  and 
there  is  a  tendency  to  slight  mixing,  so  it  quite 
often  follows  that  improperly  mixed  concrete  is 
used.  For  this  reason  the  concrete  worker  should 
endeavor  to  provide  means  for  mixing  his  con- 
crete by  a  power-operated  batch  mixer. 


26  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

AMOUNT  OF  WATER  REQUIRED 

The  amount  of  water  required  in  a  concrete  mix- 
ture varies  to  some  extent,  depending  upon  the 
construction  in  which  used.  For  most  classes 
of  work,  what  is  known  as  a  " quaky7'  consistency 
best  fills  requirements.  Such  a  mixture  is  one 
that  is  wet  enough  to  settle  in  place  with  very 
little  working  or  spading  in  the  forms,  or,  if 
placed  in  a  pile,  as  in  building  feeding  floors  or 
barnyard  pavements  and  walks,  it  will  slowly 
spread  out  or  flatten  of  its  own  weight.  Too 
much  water  will  cause  the  mortar  to  separate 
from  the  pebbles  or  broken  stone,  and  thus  result 
in  stone  pockets  in  the  finished  mass.  Where  re- 
inforcing steel  is  used,  too  wet  a  mixture  would 
also  result  in  pockets  where  the  concrete  had  not 
bonded  or  united  with  the  steel.  Finally,  after 
the  concrete  had  hardened,  the  evaporation  of  the 
excess  water  would  cause  the  mass  to  have  a  por- 
ous texture. 

In  making  such  concrete  products  as  block, 
brick  and  tile,  which  are  usually  made  in  iron 
molds,  these  products  being  removed  from  the 
mold  immediately  after  tamping,  a  drier  mixture 
must  be  used.  In  that  case  the  general  rule  is  to 
use  as  much  water  as  possible  without  interfer- 
ing with  the  quick  removal  of  the  molds,  yet 
enough  so  that  with  hard  tamping  free  moisture 
will  flush  to  the  surface  of  the  concrete. 

In  reinforced  concrete  fence  posts,  where  den- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  27 

sity  and  compactness  are  secured  not  by  tamping 
the  concrete  but  rather  by  shaking  or  jarring  the 
molds,  the  mixture  must  be  quite  wet — slightly 
wetter  than  described  by  " quaky"  —as  wet  as  pos- 
sible without  causing  separation  of  mortar  and 
gravel  in  handling  and  placing.  Such  products  as 
fence  posts  are  left  in  the  molds  for  perhaps  24 
hours,  or  until  the  concrete  has  hardened  suf- 
ficiently to  permit  removing  sides  of  the  molds 
without  injury  to  the  concrete. 

PLACING  CONCRETE 

All  concrete  should  be  placed  where  it  is  to  be 
used  within  30  minutes  after  water  has  been 
added  to  the  mixed  materials.  This  is  important 
because  concrete  begins  to  harden  within  this 
time,  and  to  disturb  the  mass  after  hardening  has 
begun  destroys  the  final  strength  of  the  concrete, 
and  in  the  case  of  floors  or  pavements  impairs 
the  wearing  quality. 

Methods  of  placing  must  necessarily  vary  in 
accordance  with  the  several  types  of  construction. 
To  mention  a  few  simple  examples : 

Concrete  for  feeding  floors  or  barnyard  pave- 
ments is  dumped  from  a  wheelbarrow  upon  a 
previously  prepared  sub-grade  or  foundation  and 
as  rapidly  as  the  forms  for  alternate  slabs  are 
filled,  the  concrete  is  struck  off  level  by  using  a 
straightedge  rested  upon  the  top  of  forms.  The 
surface  is  then  finished  by  smoothing  with  a  wood 


28  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

float.  Such  a  tool  is  preferable  to  a  steel  trowel 
as  it  gives  an  even  surface  yet  one  not  smooth 
enough  to  be  slippery.  In  the  case  of  small 
troughs  and  watering  tanks,  that  can  be  built 
without  stopping  concreting  once  it  has  begun, 
part  of  the  concrete  for  the  floor  of  the  trough  or 
tank  is  placed,  then  the  reinforcing,  then  enough 
concrete  to  finish  the  floor,  then  the  inside  form  is 
quickly  set  in  place,  concrete  for  side  walls  de- 
posited immediately  and  spaded  or  tamped,  so 
that  every  portion  of  the  forms  is  filled.  A  tool 
like  a  garden  spade  or  hoe  flattened  out,  or  a  flat 
piece  of  wood  with  the  edge  protected  by  sheet 
iron,  is  used  for  this  purpose.  Spading  next  to 
the  forms  forces  back  the  coarse  aggregate  and 
causes  the  mortar  to  flow  against  the  form  face, 
giving  a  smoother  finish  and  a  denser  surface. 

In  constructing  walls  for  buildings,  forms  are 
filled  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  just  described, 
particular  attention  being  given  to  spading  the 
coarse  material  away  from  the  outside  faces  in 
order  to  give  a  smooth  exterior  surface  when 
forms  are  removed,  this,  of  course,  assuming  that 
the  exterior  surface  is  to  be  left  in  its  natural 
condition.  If,  however,  the  surface  is  to  be  plas- 
tered finally,  spading  should  be  done  only  between 
form  faces  so  that  the  exposed  surface  will  be  a 
little  rough,  making  the  plaster  bond  or  "key" 
better  to  the  wall  face. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  29 

PROTECTION  OF  CONCRETE  AFTER 
PLACING 

Proper  protection  of  concrete  after  placing  is 
of  utmost  importance,  because  while  concrete 
generally  begins  to  harden  noticeably  within  thirty 
minutes  after  mixed,  the  subsequent  changes  in 
the  mass  tending  toward  complete  hardening  take 
place  somewhat  slowly  and  can  be  brought  about 
satisfactorily  only  in  the  presence  of  favorable 
moisture  and  temperature  conditions.  Concrete  of 
"quaky"  consistency  generally  has  sufficient 
water  in  it  to  result  in  proper  hardening,  if,  after 
placed,  the  concrete  is  protected  from  exposure 
to  sun  and  drying  winds.  If  not  so  protected,  the 
concrete  instead  of  really  hardening  will  simply 
dry  out. 

Many  persons  believe  that  drying  out  is  the 
natural  and  required  process  following  the  work 
of  placing  concrete.  Nothing  could  be  farther 
from  the  truth.  The  expression  "  curing "  has 
been  quite  generally  used,  but  the  word  suggests 
drying  rather  than  hardening.  In  any  concrete 
work  the  finished  structure  must  be  so  protected 
that  the  concrete  will  retain  the  water  already  in 
it.  To  accomplish  this,  concrete  floors,  for  in- 
stance, must  be  covered  with  wet  straw  or  damp 
sand,  and  this  covering  sprinkled  or  otherwise 
kept  moist  for  a  period  varying  from  one  to  two 
weeks  according  to  weather  conditions. 

Concrete  hardens  much  more  rapidly  in  warm 


30  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

than  in  cool  weather.  In  the  case  of  walls  of 
buildings  or  vertical  faces,  which  cannot  be 
covered  with  straw,  canvas  or  similar  material 
is  hung  over  them  and  kept  thoroughly  moist  by 
sprinkling.  The  concrete  surface  also  is  sprink- 
led; Most  concrete  should  not  be  subjected  to  its 
intended  use  until  it  has  hardened  under  favor- 
able conditions  for  a  week  or  more,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  construction.  Longer  time 
will  be  required  in  cold  weather. 

WINTER  CONCRETING 

A  great  deal  of  concrete  work  can  be  done  as 
well  in  winter  as  in  summer  if  simple  precautions 
are  taken  to  prevent  the  concrete  from  freezing 
during  the  periods  of  mixing,  placing  and  harden- 
ing.     No   material    containing   frost    or   frozen 
lumps  should  ever  be  used  in  preparing  a  con- 
crete mixture.    Sand  and  gravel  should  be  heated 
in  winter  or  kept  in  a  room  where  the  tempera- 
ture does  not  fall  below  50  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
Water  used  for  mixing  should  not  contain  ice, 
and  in  very  cold  weather  should  be  heated.    The 
idea  is   to  heat  materials    (except  the   cement) 
enough  so  that  the  concrete  when  placed  will  have 
a  temperature  not  lower  than  80  degrees  Fahren- 
heit.   This  temperature,  with  proper  precautions 
to  protect  the  concrete  immediately  after  placing, 
will  be  retained  for  some  time,  especially  as  it 
is  supplemented  by  heat  developed  within  the 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  31 

concrete  during  the  early  hardening  process  as  a 
result  of  chemical  action  between  the  cement  and 
water.  Consequently,  if  concrete  in  this  heated 
condition  is  protected  from  freezing  during  the 
first  48  hours  after  it  has  been  placed,  it  will  not 
usually  be  harmed  by  subsequent  exposure  to 
freezing  temperatures. 

Floors  placed  in  the  winter  time  should  be 
covered  with  a  foot  of  straw,  or  with  tar  paper 
with  6  inches  of  dry  manure  shoveled  on  top, 
which  should  be  left  in  place  from  ten  days  to  two 
weeks.  Manure  should  not  be  placed  immediately 
on  or  against  the  fresh  concrete  as  it  has  been 
known  to  injure  the  surface  previous  to  thorough 
hardening. 

CONCRETE    PRODUCTS    EASILY    MANUFAC- 
TURED  IN   WINTER 

Fence  posts  and  similar  concrete  products  may 
be  manufactured  in  winter  just  as  well  as  in 
summer,  provided  they  are  made  in  a  workroom 
where  the  temperature  is  kept  above  50  degrees 
and  the  materials  are  heated  as  suggested.  Such 
manufactured  products  should  be  kept  indoors 
until  they  are  two  weeks  old  before  exposure  to 
the  usual  winter  weather. 

Permanent  farm  improvements  of  concrete  are 
rapidly  supplanting  all  other  kinds  of  construc- 
tion for  the  reason  that  concrete  is,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  cement,  made  from  materials  which 
are  obtainable  on  or  near  every  farm. 


32  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

With  a  little  experience,  ordinary  farm  struc- 
tures may  be  built  by  home  labor.  Consequently 
the  cost  of  these  improvements  is  moderate,  while 
their  upkeep  is  nothing.  They  require  neither 
painting  nor  repairs;  on  the  contrary,  the  older 
they  get  the  better  they  get  if  the  concrete  work 
has  been  properly  done,  because  good  concrete 
increases  in  strength  with  age. 

No  doubt  the  chief  merit  of  concrete  for  build- 
ings is  its  fire-resistance.  Concrete  will  not  burn, 
and  insurance  on  a  structure  entirely  of  concrete 
is  unnecessary,  although  insurance  may  be  re- 
quired upon  its  contents.  To  secure  complete 
protection  from  fire,  roofs  as  well  as  walls  of 
buildings  should  be  of  concrete. 

By  no  means  least  among  the  advantages  of 
concrete  on  the  farm  is  protection  against  the 
depredations  of  rats  and  mice.  This  brings  us 
to  the  question  of  sanitation  also,  which  has 
recently  assumed  such  vast  importance  owing  to 
the  number  of  epidemic  stock  diseases  which 
periodically  take  their  toll  in  various  sections  of 
the  country.  Nothing  is  a  better  preventive  of 
disease  than  cleanliness,  and  nothing  is  so  con- 
ducive of  cleanliness  in  farm  buildings  as  con- 
crete in  all  the  surroundings  of  live  stock. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  33 

RECOMMENDED  MIXTURES  FOR  VARIOUS 
CLASSES  OF  CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  following  table  gives  suggested  mixtures 
for  various  classes  of  concrete  work.  In  each 
case  the  first  figure  represents  1  sack,  or  1 
cubic  foot,  of  Portland  cement;  the  second  figure 
represents  the  required  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
clean,  well-graded  sand  ranging  from  the  finer 
particles  to  those  that  will  just  pass  a  i-inch 
mesh  screen ;  the  third  figure  represents  the  num- 
ber of  cubic  feet  of  clean,  well-graded  pebbles  or 
crushed  stone  ranging  in  size  from  |  to  not  more 
than  1-|  inches.  Further  limitations  on  the 
maximum  size  of  coarse  aggregate  (pebbles  or 
broken  stone)  will  be  given  later  when  each  par- 
ticular class  of  construction  is  described  more  in 
detail. 

TABLE  OF  CONCRETE  MIXTURES 

A  1:2:3  mixture  for : 

Feeding  floors  and  barnyard  pavements 

One-course  floors  and  walks 

Roofs 

Fence  posts 

Water  troughs  and  tanks 
A  1:2:4  mixture  for : 

Beams  and  columns 

Engine  foundations 

Watertight  basement  walls 


34  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

Reinforced  concrete  floors 

Work  subject  to  vibration 
A  1 :  2i :  4  mixture  for : 

Building  walls  above  foundation 

Silo  walls 

Base  of  two-course  walks  and  floors 

Backing  of  concrete  block  and  similar  concrete 

products 
A  1:3:5  mixture  for : 

Basement  walls  where  watertightness  is  not  es- 
sential and  foundations  belowground 

Mass  concrete  footings,  etc. 

MORTAR 

1 : 14  mixture  for : 

Wearing  course  of  two  course  floors 

1 :  2  mixture  for : 

Scratch  coat  of  exterior  plaster 
Facing  blocks  and  similar  cement  products 
Wearing  course  of  two  course  walks,  feeding 
floors  and  barnyard  pavements 

1 :  2i  mixture  for : 

Finish  coat  of  exterior  plaster 

Table  I  shows  the  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  gravel 
(or  crushed  stone)  to  be  mixed  with  one  sack  of 
cement  to  secure  mixtures  of  the  different  propor- 
tions indicated  in  t}te  first  column.  The  last 
column  gives  the  resuming  volume  in  cubic  feet  of 
compacted  mortar  or  concrete. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    35 
TABLE    I 


MIXTURES. 

MATERIALS. 

VOL.  IN  CU.FT. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Gravel 
or 
Stone. 

Cement 
in 
Sacks. 

Sand, 
Cu.ft. 

Gravel  or 
Stone, 
Cu.ft. 

Mortar. 

Con- 
crete. 

1 

1.5 

1 

1.5 

1.75 

1 

2 

1 

2 



2.1 



1 

3 

1 

3 

2.8 

1 

1.5 

3 

1 

1.5 

3 

3.5 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

3.9 

1 

2 

4 

1 

2 

4 

4.5 

1 

2.5 

4 

1 

2.5 

4 

4.8 

1 

2.5 

5 

1 

2.5 

5 

5.4 

1 

3 

5 

1 

3 

5 

5.8 

Table  II  gives  the  number  of  sacks  of  cement 
and  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  gravel  (or  broken 
stone)  required  to  make  1  cubic  yard  (27  cubic 
feet)  of  compact  concrete  proportioned  as  indi- 
cated in  first  column. 

Following  are  given  a  number  of  examples 
which  will  illustrate  the  method  of  using  Tables 
I  and  II. 

EXAMPLE  I.  How  much  cement,  sand  and 
gravel  will  be  required  to  build  a  feeding  floor 
30  by  24  feet,  5  inches  thick! 

Multiplying  the  area  (30  by  24)  by  the  thick- 
ness in  feet  gives  300  cubic  feet,  and  dividing  this 
by  27  gives  11  i  cubic  yards  as  the  required 
volume  of  concrete.  A  one-course  floor  should  be 
of  1 :  2 :  3  mixture.  Table  II  shows  that  each  cubic 
yard  of  this  mixture  requires  7  sacks  of  cement, 


36   CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 
TABLE  II 


MIXTURES. 

QUANTITIES  OP  MATERIALS. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Gravel  or 
Stone. 

Cement  in 
Sacks. 

Sand, 
Cu.ft. 

Stone  or 
Gravel, 
Cu.ft. 

1.5 

15.5 

23.2 

2 

12  8 

25  6 

3 

9.6 

28.8 

1.5 

3 

7.6 

11.4 

22.8 

2 

3 

7 

14 

21 

2 

4 

6 

12 

24 

2.5 

4 

5.6 

14 

22.4 

2.5 

5 

5 

.12.5 

25 

3 

5 

4.6 

13.8 

23 

14  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  21  cubic  feet  of  gravel 
or  stone.  Multiplying  these  quantities  by  the 
number  of  cubic  yards  required  (11-J-)  gives  the 
quantities  of  material  required  (eliminating  frac- 
tions) as  78  sacks  of  cement,  156  cubic  feet  of 
sand  and  233  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or  stone.  As 
there  are  4  sacks  of  cement  in  a  barrel,  and  27 
cubic  feet  of  sand  or  gravel  in  a  cubic  yard,  there 
will  be  needed  a  little  less  than  20  barrels  of 
cement,  6  cubic  yards  of  sand  and  9  cubic  yards  of 
gravel  or  stone. 

EXAMPLE  II.  How  many  fence  posts  3  by  3 
inches  at  the  top,  5  by  5  inches  at  the  bottom  and 
7  feet  long,  can  be  made  from  1  sack  of  cement? 
How  much  sand  and  gravel  will  be  needed! 

Fence  posts   should  be   of  a   1:2:3  mixture. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  37 

Table  I  shows  the  volume  of  a  1-sack  batch  of  this 
mixture  to  be  3ro  cubic  feet.  The  volume  of 
one  concrete  post,  found  by  multiplying  the 
length  by  the  average  width  and  breadth  in  feet 
(7XJX1)  is  I  cubic  foot.  By  dividing  3T9o  by  J 
we  find  that  five  posts  can  be  made  from  1  sack 
of  cement  when  mixed  with  2  cubic  feet  of  sand 
and  3  cubic  feet  of  gravel. 

EXAMPLE  III.  What  quantities  of  cement, 
sand  and  gravel  are  necessary  to  make  100  un- 
faced  concrete  block,  each  8  by  8  by  16  inches? 

The  product  of  height,  width  and  thickness,  all 
in  feet  (iXfX-f)  gives  if  cubic  feet  as  the  con- 
tents of  a  solid  block.  As  the  air  space  is  usually 
estimated  as  33i  per  cent,  the  volume  of  concrete 
in  one  hollow  block  will  be  I  of  if,  or  If  cubic 
feet;  in  100  blocks,  the  volume  of  concrete  will 
be  -If2-  or  39i  cubic  feet,  which  being  divided  by 
27  gives  a  little  less  than  11  cubic  yards.  Unfaced 
concrete  block  should-  be  of  1 :  2i : 4  mixture. 
Table  II  shows  that  each  cubic  yard  of  this  mix- 
ture requires  5T6o  sacks  of  cement,  14  cubic  feet  of 
sand  and  22  T%  cubic  feet  of  gravel.  Multiplying 
these  quantities  by  the  number  of  cubic  yards 
required  (li)  gives  the  quantities  of  material 
required  as  8f  sacks  of  cement,  21  cubic  feet  of 
sand  and  33|  cubic  feet  of  gravel. 

EXAMPLE  IV:  How  many  6-foot  hog  troughs, 
12  inches  wide  and  10  inches  high,  can  be  made 
from  1  barrel  of  cement? 


38  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

Use  a  1 :  2 :  3  mixture.  Table  I  shows  the  volume 
of  a  1-sack  batch  of  this  mixture  to  be  3T9o 
cubic  feet.  As  there  are  4  sacks  in  1  barrel,  a 
barrel  of  cement  would  be  sufficient  for  4  times 
3A,  or  15  A  cubic  feet  of  concrete.  The  product 
of  the  three  dimensions,  all  in  feet,  gives  the 
volume  of  one  trough  as  '5  cubic  feet.  How- 
ever, approximately  30  per  cent  of  this  volume  is 
in  the  open  water  basin  or  inside  of  the  tank,  leav- 
ing 3^  cubic  feet  as  the  solid  contents  of  con- 
crete in  one  trough.  Dividing  15  T%  by  3T%,  we 
find  that  4  troughs  (and  a  fraction  over)  can 
be  made  from  1  barrel  of  cement  when  mixed  with 
8  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  12  cubic  feet  of  gravel. 

FORMS  FOR  VARIOUS  CLASSES  OF  CON- 
•    CRETE  CONSTRUCTION 

Forms  or  molds  are  the  receptacles  in  which 
concrete  is  placed  so  that  it  will  have  the  desired 
shape  or  outlines  when  hardened.  Forms  are 
constructed  of  wood,  cast  iron  or  sheet  steel,  or 
of  wood  lined  with  sheet  iron  or  steel,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  surface 
finish  which  it  is  desired  to  obtain.  By  far  the 
greater  portion  of  concrete  is  placed  in  wood 
forms.  The  character  of  the  work  and  the  cost  of 
lumber  generally  determine  the  kind  of  lumber 
that  shall  be  used  for  forms'.  For  work  where  a 
very  smooth  surface  finish  is  required,  planed 
lumber  is  best,  and  if  ornamental  trim  is  to  be 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    39 

reproduced  in  concrete,  then  white  pine  is  best. 
For  ordinary  work,  however,  white  pine  is  too 
expensive,  and  too  soft  to  be  durable  under  re- 
peated iise.  Therefore  spruce,  Norway  pine,  and 
southern  pine  are  generally  the  most  economical 
kinds  of  form  lumber.  California  redwood  will 
stain  the  concrete  surface  so  should  not  be  used 
where  such  staining  would  be  objectionable. 
Where  spruce  can  be  readily  obtained,  it  is  per- 
haps the  best  material  for  form  studs  and  posts. 
Hemlock  is  too  coarse  grained  for  sheathing  and 
splits  so  easily  as  to  be  unsafe  where  forms  must 
be  strong  and  heavy  to  support  a  great  load  of 
concrete.  Most  of  the  hardwoods  are  too  expen- 
sive and  too  difficult  to  work. 

Form  lumber  should  be  free  from  defects  that 
will  affect  its  strength  or  cause  the  concrete  to 
show  a  reproduction  of  the  markings  on  the 
lumber,  where  surface  markings  on  the  concrete 
would  be  undesirable. 

Air-seasoned  lumber  is  better  than  kiln-dried; 
the  latter  will  swell  and  bulge  at  the  joints,  while 
green  lumber  will  shrink  if  not  kept  wet,  thus 
opening  cracks  in  the  forms  through  which  water 
carrying  cement  will  leak  out  when  the  concrete 
is  placed.  Even  for  plain  work,  lumber  that 
has  been  dressed  at  least  on  one  side  and  on  the 
edges  is  best,  because  the  boards  will  fit  closely 
together  and  the  smooth  surface  will  reduce  the 
labor  of  removing  and  cleaning  forms.  Tongued 
and  grooved  lumber  is  often  used  for  form 


40  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

sheathing.  This  makes  tight  forms  and  prevents 
leakage  of  water  through  forms  when  wet  con- 
crete is  being  placed,  hence,  will  prevent  the  loss 
of  cement  from  the  concrete  mixture.  But  for 
most  farm  work,  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  is 
unnecessarily  expensive. 

Form  lumber  should  be  uniform  in  thickness, 
as  any  inequalities  of  thickness  cause  unevenness 
on  the  concrete  surface.  Posts  and  studs  for 
supporting  forms  must  be  sufficiently  stiff  and 
strong  to  hold  forms  in  true  line  and  to  prevent 
bulging  or  sagging  under  the  load  of  concrete. 

Careful  thought  should  be  given  to  construct- 
ing forms  so  that  if  it  is  desired  to  use  them 
again  or  to  use  the  lumber  of  which  they  have 
been  made  for  further  concrete  form  work  they 
can  be  knocked  down  with  least  injury  to  the 
lumber.  It  may  often  be  found  advantageous 
to  assemble  certain  forms  with  screws  instead 
of  with  nails.  Forms  should  be  so  designed  that 
they  can  be  taken  down  with  the  least  amount 
of  hammering,  thus  preventing  possible  injury 
to  the  concrete  before  it  has  thoroughly  hardened. 

For  some  foundation  work,  especially  where 
the  earth  is  so  firm  that  the  sidewalls  of  the 
excavation  will  stand  without  caving,  forms  will 
not  be  necessary  for  portions  of  the  construction 
underground;  but  when  placing  and  tamping  the 
concrete,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  knock  down 
earth  into  the  concrete.  This  will  cause  weak 
porous  spots  in  the  wall. 


CONCKETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  41 

Economy  of  lumber  and  consequently  reduced 
cost  of  form  construction  will  result  from  planning 
the  forms  in  units  so  far  as  possible;  that  is,  as 
panels  or  sections  which  can  easily  be  removed 
and  reset  in  other  places  on  the  same  job  without 
alteration.  This  is  especially  true  of  building- 
wall  construction  aboveground. 

Depending  upon  the  mass  of  concrete  to  be 
supported,  form  lumber  may  vary  in  thickness 
from  1  to  2  inches.  Likewise  studding  to  which 
the  sheathing  boards  are  nailed  may  be  spaced 
from  18  inches  to  perhaps  2J  or  3  feet  apart, 
depending  upon  the  thickness  of  sheathing  and 
the  mass  of  the  concrete  to  be  placed,  and,  hence, 
upon  its  tendency  to  cause  forms  to  bulge.  Studs 
should  be  selected  with  this  in  view  also,  hence 
may  vary  from  2  by  4  to  2  by  8  stock. 

If  forms  of  planed  lumber  are  to  be  used 
repeatedly  on  the  same  construction,  it  is  advis- 
able to  give  the  form  face  against  which  the  con- 
crete is  to  be  placed,  several  coats  of  shellac  to 
render  the  lumber  non-absorbent.  This  will 
prevent  loss  of  water  from  the  concrete  and  will 
also  keep  the  concrete  from  sticking  when  hard- 
ening. This,  however,  applies  rather  to  forms 
used  in  ornamental  work  and  is  not  usually  war- 
ranted in  the  average  construction.  The  common 
practice  is  to  oil  or  wet  forms  at  each  setting 
just  before  depositing  the  concrete.  A  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  kerosene 
is  very  effective  for  this  purpose,  and  such  a 


42  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

mixture  should  be  painted  on  by  using  a  swab, 
or  a  brush  like  a  whitewash  brush.  Thorough 
wetting  down  with  water  will  also  prevent  con- 
crete from  sticking  if  before  used  the  first  time 
the  forms  have  been  thoroughly  oil-soaked.  All 
concrete  adhering  to  forms  from  previous  work 
should  be  carefully  removed  before  placing  new 
concrete. 

While  no  high  degree  of  skill  is  required  to  make 
forms  for  ordinary  concrete  construction,  never- 
theless, thoughtful  care  should  be  exercised  when 
measuring  and  cutting  lumber,  so  that  the  con- 
crete placed  in  them  will  correspond  in  line  and 
dimension  to  the  plan  intended.  If  properly 
planned,  forms  can  be  assembled  in  part  by 
clamps  and  wedges,  and  only  a  few  nails  partly 
driven  will  be  necessary.  This  will  permit  taking 
them  down  with  least  injury  to  the  lumber  and  to 
the  partly  hardened  concrete. 

After  forms  are  made  they  should  be  set  up 
perfectly  plumb,  and  well  braced  in  position  so 
as  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  fresh  con- 
crete, also  of  tamping  it  into  place.  Wood  spacers 
should  be  used  to  hold  opposite  form  faces 
exactly  the  correct  distance  apart,  then  bolts  or 
wire  ties  be  passed  through  or  around  form  studs 
and  across  the  space  between  forms  to  tighten 
the  forms  against  the  spacers  and  thus  hold  them 
in  true  alignment  so  that  in  wall  construction, 
for  instance,  the  finished  structure  will  have  a 
uniform  thickness  throughout. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  43 

Bolts  used  as  form  ties  should  be  greased 
before  placed  so  that  they  may  be  readily  knocked 
out  of  the  concrete  when  taking  down  forms. 
Removing  them  of  course  leaves  holes  in  the  con- 
crete, which  must  afterward  be  pointed  up  with 
a  cement  mortar,  usually  consisting  of  1  part 
cement  to  2  parts  of  clean,  coarse  sand.  Gener- 
ally wire  ties  are  cheapest,  as  the  wire  can  be  cut 
and  all  except  the  projecting  ends  be  left  in  the 
concrete.  Wire  ties  are  tightened  by  twisting 
between  form  faces.  Spacers,  of  course,  are 
removed  as  'concreting  progresses. 

The  length  of  time  forms  should  be  left  in  place 
cannot  be  definitely  stated.  This  depends  alto- 
gether upon  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the 
weather  conditions,  which  govern  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  concrete  will  gain  strength  enough  to  be 
not  only  self-supporting  but  to  carry  any  load 
which  is  placed  upon  it: 

It  is  particularly  important  that  column  forms 
be  left  in  position  long  enough  to  prevent  failure 
of  the  concrete  after  form  removal.  The  same 
applies  to  forms  used  for  supporting  roof  and 
floor  slabs.  Where  no  particular  pressure  is 
brought  against  the  concrete  or  no  load  other  than 
its  own  weight  must  be  carried,  forms  can  some- 
times be  removed  in  from  one-half  to  two  days, 
or  as  soon  as  the  concrete  will  withstand  hard 
pressure  of  one's  thumb  without  showing  a  mark. 
On  massive  walls  without  load  one  to  three  days 
are  generally  required ;  but  where  the  wall  must 


44  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

withstand  earth  pressure,  as  in  a  retaining  wall, 
the  forms  may  have  to  be  left  in  place  three  to 
four  weeks.  This  depends  largely  upon  the  time 
of  year,  which  influences  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  concrete  gains  strength. 

SIMPLE   FORM    SYSTEM 

Although  there  are  a  number  of  form  systems 
which  considerably  simplify  concrete  construc- 
tion, most  of  these  are  subject  to  patent  control, 
hence  the  user  must  pay  a  royalty  to  the  patent 
owner  for  the  privilege  of  using  the  systems; 
or  where  patented  forms  may  be  purchased 
outright,  their  cost  is  greater  than  usually  war- 
ranted for  the  limited  use  made  by  the  home  con- 
crete worker. 

Probably  no  use  of  concrete  shows  the  material 
to  more  advantage  than  does  monolithic  con- 
struction. But  the  unit  system,  in  which  various 
pre-cast  members  are  ultimately  set  up  in  place, 
possesses  its  advantages  also,  because  doing  away 
largely  with  expensive  form  construction.  Yet 
frequently  members  must  for  various  reasons  be 
cast  of  such  size  as  to  be  unwieldy  when  necessary 
to  assemble  the  structure. 

A  form  system  which  combines  simplicity  with 
cheapness  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  9.  This  pro- 
duces what  in  a  way  is  a  combination  of  unit  and 
monolithic  construction.  Columns,  piers  or  posts 
are  formed  of  hollow  blocks  cast  in  simple  molds, 


CONCRETE  OK  THE.  FARM  AND  SHOP  45 

then  laid  up  as  masonry.  The  core  or  hollow 
space  is  afterward  filled  with  concrete,  reinforc- 
ing rods  being  inserted  if  necessary  or  desirable, 


FIG.  9.— Construction  Showing  Adaptable  System  of  Simple  Forms. 

thus  resulting  essentially  in  a  reinforced  mono- 
lithic column. 

Blocks  when  cast  are  made  in  a  mold  that  pro- 
vides for  ribs  on  each  end  against  which  planks 
may  be  clamped  to  serve  as  forms  for  placing 


46  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


the  concrete  of  intervening  panels.  By  varying 
the  relative  position  of  these  ribs  on  the  block, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  one  can  see  the  possibili- 
ties of  constructing  walls  or  panels  of  practically 
any  desired  thickness. 

Most  of  the  commercial  block  machines  could 


FIG.  10. — Illustrating  How  the  System  Shown  in  Fig.  9  may  be 
Readily  Varied. 

be  equipped  with  a  mold  that  would  permit  man- 
ufacturing such  blocks  by  machine,  yet  as  they 
form  but  a  small  portion  of  the  entire  construc- 
tion where  this  system  is  used,  most  home  work- 
ers will  find  it  quite  as  desirable  to  make  a  simple 
mold  and  manufacture  the  block  by  hand. 

A  1 :  2 :  4  or  1 :  2i :  4  mixture  in  which  the  coarse 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  47 

aggregate  does  not  exceed  1  inch  in  greatest  di- 
mension should  be  used  for  the  block  and  the  con- 
crete should  be  of  a  drier  consistency  than  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  t  i  quaky, ' '  yet  not  so  wet  that 
the  forms  cannot  be  removed  immediately  after 
the  concrete  has  been  tamped  in  the  mold.  Just 
enough  water  should  be  used  in  the  mixture  to 
cause  a  slight  flushing  of  free  water  to  the  sur- 
face when  compacting  the  concrete. 

In  constructing  columns  or  piers  for  building- 
walls,  foundation  walls  aboveground,  or  for  panel 
fences,  these  blocks  should,  after  thoroughly 
hardened,  be  laid  up  in  a  1:2  cement  mortar. 
Blocks  should  be  thoroughly  wet  before  being  laid 
up  so  that  they  will  not  absorb  an  excess  of  water 
from  the  cement  mortar  thus  preventing  the 
morta-r  from  bonding  them  together.  Piers  or 
columns  are  built  up  5  or  6  feet  high  before 
filling  the  hollow  space  with  concrete.  Whether 
reinforcing  will  be  necessary  or  not  can  be  de- 
termined only  when  it  is  known  to  what  purpose 
the  construction  is  ultimately  to  be  put. 

Forms  used  to  place  the  monolithic  panels 
between  columns,  posts  or  piers,  consist  simply 
of  12  or  14-inch  planks  2  inches  thick,  bolted 
together  with  1-inch  bolts.  Holes  for  bolts 
should  be  so  laid  out  in  the  planks  that  it  will 
be  possible  to  turn  planks  end  for  end  if  neces- 
sary to  correct  warping  or  twisting  from  previous 
use.  Bolts  should  be  well  oiled  before  placing 
concrete  so  that  when  form  removal  is  started 


48  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

they  can  be  readily  driven  out  of  the  wall  and 
again  used.  The  holes  left  may  be-  easily  pointed 
up  with  a  1 :  2  cement  mortar.  In  some  wall 
construction  holes  will  need  to  be  closed  only  on 
the  outside  face  of  the  wall,  wood  plugs  being 
driven  in  the  holes  on  the  inside  face  to  serve 
as  nail  holds  for  attaching  furring  strips  if  lath- 
ing and  plastering  is  contemplated  later. 

Four  planks  are  commonly  used  to  a  panel,  and 
after  being  bolted  in  place  the  space  between 
them  is  filled  with  concrete.  When  the  concrete 
has  sufficiently  hardened,  forms  are  reset  for 
further  use  by  removing  the  lower  pair  of  planks 
first  and  placing  them  on  top  of  and  resting  on 
the  pair  above  where  they  are  bolted  against 
the  projecting  lugs  of  blocks.  After  concreting 
has  been  carried  to  the  height  at  which  piers 
were  built  in  the  first  instance,  more  blocks  are 
laid  to  extend  the  piers  or  columns  to  a  higher 
point,  and  so  on.  Reinforcing  of  panels  can 
be  easily  done  where  necessary. 

This  system  of  form  construction  practically 
eliminates  carpenter  work  and  requires  no  outlay 
of  lumber  that  after  concreting  represents  waste. 
In  fact  there  is  no  waste  of  lumber  where  this 
system  is  used. 

Blocks  cast  after  the  manner  suggested  yet 
without  projecting  lugs  form  convenient  units 
for  building  porch  piers  and  may  be  filled  with 
concrete  if  such  added  strength  is  necessary,  and 
may  also  be  reinforced.  On  the  other  hand,  if 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  49 

it  is  desired  to  enclose  the  foundation  with  walls 
or  panels  between  piers  then  naturally  the  blocks 
with  projecting  lugs  will  -be  used. 

CONCRETING   TOOLS 

In  addition  to  the  advantage  of  being  able  to 
secure  most  of  the  concrete  materials  near  the 
work,  is  the  advantage  that  but  few  tools  are 
required  in  ordinary  concreting.  A  carpenter's 
square,  hammer  and  saw,  nails  and  screws  to 
assemble  lumber,  a  sand  screen  (Fig.  1)  so  that 
the  fine  and  coarse  materials  may  be  separated 
for  proper  reproportioning  afterwards,  perhaps 
a  trough  or  washing  box  (Figs  2  and  3)  in  which 
dirty  material  can  be  freed  from  clay,  loam  and 
similar  foreign  matter,  a  mixing  platform  (Fig. 
8),  measuring  box,  water  barrel,  square-pointed 
shovels,  strikeboard,  spade,  or  similar  tool 
already  described,  a  tamper,  and  a  hand  float, 
similar  to  a  trowel,  are  the  essential  tools. 

A  sand  screen  of  convenient  size  can  be  made 
by  nailing  a  frame  of  2  by  6  lumber  over  wire 
mesh  having  quarter-inch  openings;  that  is,  4 
openings  to  the  linear  inch,  or  16  openings  to  the 
square  inch,  or,  a  screen  fabric  consisting  of 
f-inch  slotted  screen  wire  with  cross  wires  as 
braces  from  4  to  6  inches  apart.  Legs  should 
be  attached  to  one  end  of  the  frame  so  that  the 
screen  when  set  up  for  use  will  stand  at  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees  with  the  horizontal. 


50  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

A  very  serviceable  type  of  mixing  platform  can 
be  made  by  nailing  2-inch  lumber  planed  on  one 
side  and  the  edges,  to  a  frame  of  2  by  6's. 
Tongued  and  grooved  lumber  is  preferable,  how- 
ever, so  that  joints  will  be  tight  enough  to  pre- 
vent mixing  water  leaking  through  and  carrying 
with  it  a  quantity  of  cement.  The  2  by  6  stringers 
to  which  the  platform  boards  are  nailed  should 
be  spaced  not  farther  than  2  feet  apart  and  if 
the  outer  two  have  holes  bored  at  the  ends,  so 
that  clevises  can  be  attached  to  them,  a  horse 
can  be  used  to  drag  the  platform  easily  about 
where  needed. 

A  bottomless  box  3  feet  long,  1  foot  4  inches 
wide  and  1  foot  deep,  inside  measurements,  made 
of  14-inch  lumber,  has  been  found  of  convenient 
size  for  measuring  materials,  because  such  a  box 
holds  exactly  4  cubic  feet.  It  should  be  marked 
on  the  inside  at  3-inch  intervals  so  that  the  volume 
of  sand  and  gravel  may  be  easily  measured  in 
multiples  of  one  cubic  foot.  In  other  words,  the 
measuring  box  is  really  a  frame  with  handles, 
and  when  in  use  is  set  on  the  mixing  platform 
which  serves  as  a  bottom. 

Suppose  it  is  required  to  prepare  a  1:2:4  mix- 
ture; sand  is  shoveled  into  the  box  until  there 
are  2  cubic  feet,  which  would  fill  the  frame  half 
full  or  6  inches  deep.  Then  the  box  is  lifted  and 
the  sand  spread  level  over  the  center  of  the  plat- 
form. One  sack  of  cement  (which  equals  1  cubic 
foot)  is  then  dumped  on  top  of  the  sand  and 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  51 

spread  about  evenly.  The  cement  and  sand  are 
thoroughly  mixed  and  leveled  off.  The  measuring 
box  is  now  set  on  top  of  the  mixed  sand  and 
cement  or  on  the  platform  beside  them  and  filled 
level  full  of  gravel  or  broken  stone.  The  box  is 
then  lifted,  leaving  4  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or 
broken  stone  to  be  mixed  with  the  sand  and 
cement.  Mixtures  made  up  of  different  propor- 
tions of  sand,  gravel  and  cement  are  prepared 
in  a  similar  manner. 

Although  concrete  should  always  be  mixed  as 
near  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  used  as  pos- 
sible, it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  handle  it 
some  distance  from  the  mixing  platform  or  mixer. 
For  transferring  concrete  from  the  mixing  ma- 
chine or  platform  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be 
deposited,  a  wheelbarrow  may  be  needed.  One 
having  a  sheet-iron  body  is  preferable,  as  less 
concrete  is  likely  to  adhere  to  the  surface  and 
after  use  it  can  more  readily  be  cleansed  than  a 
wood  one.  A  type  should  be  chosen  that  has  the 
front  portion  of  the  body  higher  than  the  back, 
so  that  when  the  handles  are  lifted  to  wheel  it 
the  concrete  may  lie  level  in  the  barrow  without 
flowing  over  one  end  and  thus  being  wasted. 

Watertightness  of  concrete  construction  is 
largely  dependent  upon  the  proper  proportioning 
of  materials  and  suitable  consistency;  neverthe- 
less, it  is  in  part  secured,  by  spading  the  concrete 
in  the  form  so  as  to  force  back  from  the  form 
face  the  coarse  particles  and  allow  the  sand- 


52  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

cement  mortar  to  flow  next  to  the  forms.  In  use 
the  spading  tool  (Fig.  50)  should  be  worked  up 
and  down,  not  only  in  the  center  of  the  mass,  but 
next  to  the  form  face  as  concrete  is  deposited. 
Little  or  no  tamping  will  be  required  if  a 
" quaky"  mixture  is  used. 

Ordinarily  concrete  should  be  deposited  in 
layers  not  more  than  6  or  8  inches  thick,  never 
more  than  12  inches,  preferably  6  to  8,  because  if 
more  than  this  is  placed  in  the  forms  at  one  time, 
it  will  not  be  possible  to  tamp  or  spade  it  to  maxi- 
mum compactness  and  density. 

In  foundation  work,  especially  where  most  of 
the  concrete  is  placed  below  ground  level  and 
there  is  to  be  no  basement  within  the  foundation 
walls,  hence  watertightness  is  not  essential,  con- 
crete is  often  mixed  with  slightly  less  water  than 
is  required  to  produce  a  "quaky"  mixture,  in 
which  case  the  concrete  is  tamped  into  position 
rather  than  spaded.  For  this  work  a  tamper 
may  be  made  by  fastening  a  piece  of  1-inch  gas 
pipe,  5  feet  long,  into  a  hardwood  block  8  by  8 
by  12  inches,  by  boring  a  hole  into  the  end  of  the 
block  and  driving  in  the  pipe.  The  durability 
of  such  a  tamper  may  be  increased  somewhat, 
by  "shoeing"  it  with  a  piece  of  sheet-iron;  or, 
a  steel  tamper  can  be  purchased,  and  will  of 
course  be  more  durable.  For  most  work,  how- 
ever, the  home-made  tamper  described  will  be 
sufficient.  One  of  smaller  square  dimensions 
than  mentioned  may  be  needed  where  the  dis- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  53 

tance  between  form  faces  will  not  permit  using  a 
tamper  8  inches  square. 

In  building  floors,  walks,  and  barnyard  pave- 
ments, a  straightedge  is  used  to  level  or  strike 
off  the  concrete  after  it  has  been  placed  in  the 
forms.  The  straightedge  (see  Fig.  46)  is  used 
by  resting  it  upon  the  top  edge  of  forms,  and 
should  be  long  enough  to  project  beyond  the 
forms  so  that  it  may  be  conveniently  handled  by 
working  it  back  and  forth  with  a  saw-like  motion. 
A  piece  of  li-inch  lumber,  from  4  to  6  inches 
wide  and  6  feet  long,  planed  to  a  true  face  on 
the  lower  edge,  makes  a  good  straightedge  to 
strike  off  a  slab  5  feet  wide.  For  a  wider  sur- 
face a  longer  one  will  be  needed. 

Although  it  is  now  common  practice  to  lay 
concrete  floors  and  pavements  of  one-course  con- 
struction, that  is,  of  the  same  mixture  through- 
out, sometimes  such  work  is  laid  in  two  courses ; 
that  is,  the  base  is  of  a  "leaner"  mixture  than 
the  top  (having  less  cement  in  it)  and  in  such  case 
a  base  gage  or  strikeboard  is  necessary  which 
is  similar  to  the  ordinary  straightedge  but 
notched  at  the  ends  so  that  when  resting  upon 
the  sides  of  the  forms  it  will  project  into  them  1 
inch  and  consequently  strike  off  the  concrete  at 
that  depth  below  the  top  of  the  forms  so  there 
will  be  a  1-inch  space  remaining  to  be  filled  im- 
mediately with  the  richer  concrete  top  or  wearing 
course. 

Most  classes  of  concrete  work  such  as  pave- 


54  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

ments,  walks,  barn  floors,  driveways,  etc.,  are  now 
finished  by  using  a  wooden  finishing  trowel,  called 
a  wood  float,  because  of  its  similarity  to  the  float 
used  by  plasterers.  Such  a  tool  should  be  from 
4i  to  6.  inches  wide  and  from  10  to  12  inches 
long,  and  can  very  readily  be  made  by  fitting  a 
wood  handle  to  a  piece  of  i-inch  board  of  the 
desired  size.  The  edges  which  are  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  concrete  should  be  very  slightly 
rounded.  The  wood  float  gives  to  the  surface  of 
a  concrete  walk,  feeding  floor  or  pavement  a  tex- 
ture which  is  even  but  not  slippery,  and  one  that 
is  much  preferable  for  stock  to  walk  upon  than  a 
concrete  surface  finished  with  a  steel  trowel. 
Danger  of  slipping  is  entirely  removed  if  the  sur- 
face is  wood  floated  in  final  finishing.  Corruga- 
tions in  walks,  floors  and  pavements  are  not  neces- 
sary then. 

For  most  home  concrete  work,  the  tools  de- 
scribed will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
buy  three  small  ones:  a  rectangular  steel  trowel, 
a  groover  and  an  edger.  The  steel  trowel  is  not 
recommended  for  general  use,  but  is  of  advan- 
tage in  finishing  the  inside  of  mangers,  water- 
troughs,  and  work  where  a  particularly  smooth 
surface  is  desired.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
overtrowel  the  surface,  as  this  causes  a  separa- 
tion of  the  cement  from  the  sand,  bringing  the 
former  to  the  surface  as  a  fine  film  which  is  not 
at  all  durable  ^  under  wear. 

The  groover,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  is  for 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  55 

making  a  groove  at  the  joints  of  walk  or  pave- 
ment slabs,  but  is  used  only  on  two-course  work, 
one-course  work  being  laid  in  alternate  slabs  to 
secure  perfect  joints  of  separation.  As  one- 
course  work  is  largely  replacing  two-course  con- 
struction, the  groover  will  seldom  be  required. 
The  edger,  however,  is  necessary  to  finish  the 
edges  of  all  slabs  in  walk,  floor  or  pavement  con- 
struction regardless  of  whether  the  work  is  one  or 
two-course;  These  three  small  tools  may  be 
purchased  from  almost  any  hardware  dealer,  or 
can  readily  be  obtained  by  him.  They  are  not 
expensive  and  if  kept  clean  and  well  oiled  after 
laid  away  will  last  almost  indefinitely. 

FOUNDATIONS 

No  material  lends  itself  more  readily  to  the 
construction  of  foundations  than  does  concrete. 
The  very  ease  with  which  it  may  be  made  to  fill 
irregular  excavations  simplifies  foundation  con- 
struction by  comparison  with  brick  or  stone 
masonry.  Furthermore,  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  work  can  be  carried  on  with  unskilled  labor 
is  another  advantage.  Where  the  nature  of  the 
ground  is  such  that  the  walls  of  the  excavation 
are  self-sustaining,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to 
use  forms  for  that  portion  of  a  foundation  wall 
below  ground.  But  if  the  interior  of  the  excava- 
tion is  to  form  a  basement  or  cellar,  then  inside 
forms  at  least  will  be  necessary  so  that  a  smooth 
surface  can  be  given  to  the  concrete  while  placing. 


56   CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

LAYING  OUT  FOUNDATIONS 

As  most  buildings  are  square  or  rectangular, 
laying  out  the  foundation  is  a  relatively  simple 
matter.  (See  Fig.  11.)  A  stake  should  be  driven 
where  one  corner  of  the  proposed  building  is  to 
come:  From  this  stake  a  string  should  be 


/> 

_;$ 


FIG.  11. — Method  of  Laying  Out  Foundation  to  Square  Corners. 

stretched  in  the  direction  of  one  side  of  the 
building  and  to  a  point  where  another  corner  is 
to  fall.  For  instance,  suppose  in  Fig.  11  one 
corner  of  the  building  is  to  be  located  as  indicated 
by  the  stake  A,  and  another  at  the  stake  C.  After 
these  two  points  have  been  fixed,  a  string  should 
be  tightly  stretched  from  stake  A  to  stake  C. 
Then  measure  off  the  required  distance  from  A 
to  B,  stretching  a  string  also  between  these  points. 
When  setting  stake  B,  endeavor  to  locate  it  so 
that  the  string  A-B  will  be  nearly  at  right  angles 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FAKM  AND  SHOP  57 

with  the  string  A-C.  Now  measure  off  on  the 
string  A-C  8  feet  and  drive  a  stake  into  the 
ground  directly  beneath  the  string  at  this  point. 
Mark  the  8-foot  distance  by  a  small  brad  or  nail 
driven  in  the  top  of  the  stake  at  Z.  Measure  off 
on  the  string  A-B  6  feet  and  drive  a  stake  at  Y, 
marking  the  6-foot  point  also  on  the  top  of  stake 
7.  The  stake  Y  may  now  be  shifted  slightly, 
either  to  the  right  or  left  as  may  be  necessary, 
until  the  distance  between  the  mark  on  the  top  of 
stake  Y  and  stake  Z  is  exactly  10  feet.  When  this 
has  been  fixed,  the  stake  B  can  be  moved  to  the 
right  or  left  as  necessary  until  the  string  A-B 
exactly  crosses  the  mark  on  top  of  stake  Y.  This 
will  make  the  foundation  corner  as  indicated  by 
the  strings  B-A  and  A-C  a  right  angle.  Other 
corners  can  be  then  squared  in  the  same  manner. 
Piers  that  are  necessary  within  the  foundation 
enclosure  can  be  readily  located  by  following 
similar  methods.  These  strings  serve  as  a  guide 
for  the  exterior  line  of  the  foundation  trench. 


DEPTH  OF  EXCAVATION  FOR 
FOUNDATIONS 

Excavations  for  foundations  should  in  all  cases 
extend  deep  enough  to  reach  firm  bearing  soil  and 
to  be  below  possible  frost  penetration.  If  not 
placed  below  the  level  to  which  frost  may  enter 
the  ground,  heaving  may  result  and  this  may 
eventually  cause  cracking  of  the  construction. 


58  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

This  may  mean  that  the  bottom  of  the  foundation 
or  footing  must  start  at  a  point  3  or  4  feet  below 
ground  level. 

For  light  structures,  perhaps  no  footing  will 
be  needed,  although  it  is  best  to  provide  a  footing 
somewhat  wider  than  the  actual  foundation  wall 
thickness,  as  this  insures  a  firm  bearing  for  the 
load  that  is  to  be  carried. 

Ordinary  footings  may  vary  in  width  from  18 
inches  to  2  feet  or  more  and  from  6  to  12  inches 
in  thickness.  For  most  farm  structures  it  will 
rarely  be  necessary  to  build  a  foundation  wall 
more  than  10  or  12  inches  thick,  probably  the 
former  will  be  sufficient,  unless  the  building  is 
to  be  a  very  heavy  one  or  carry  heavy  loads. 
Building  walls  aboveground  will  vary  from  6  to 
10  inches  thick,  depending  on  the  size  of  struc- 
ture. Foundations  ordinarily  require  no  rein- 
forcing. 

Form  construction  for  the  portions  of  the  foun- 
dation wall  aboveground  is  simple,  and  consists 
merely  of  panels  which  are  constructed  by  nailing- 
sheathing  boards  to  2  by  4-inch  studs  spaced  from 
18  inches  to  2  or  2i  feet  apart,  depending  upon 
the  thickness  of  the  sheathing  and  the  weight  of 
the  concrete.  The  forms  should,  of  course,  be  well 
braced,  so  as  to  hold  them  in  true  line  and  enable 
them  to  resist  the  pressure  or  thrust  from  con- 
crete while  being  placed  and  spaded  in  the  forms; 

Where  the  enclosure  within  foundation  walls  is 
not  to  be  used  as  a  basement  or  cellar,  and  hence 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  59 

need  not  be  thoroughly  watertight,  a  somewhat 
drier  mixture  than  is  described  by  the  word 
" quaky"  may  be  used  for  foundation  construc- 
tion; and  unless  the  load  to  be  carried  is  an  ex- 
tremely heavy  one,  a  1:3:5  mixture  will  be 
suited  to  that  portion  of  the  foundation  below- 
ground.  Jrfst  as  soon  as  ground  level  is  reached, 
however,  the  mixture  used  should  be  a  richer  one, 
preferably  a  1:2:4  or  1 :  2i :  4.  Concrete  should 
be  placed  continuously  in  layers  not  exceeding  6 
or  8  inches  thick,  and  carefully  tamped  or  spaded 
as  placed.  A  somewhat  dry  mixture  needs 
thorough  tamping;  a  "quaky"  one  needs 
thorough  spading  but  little  tamping.  Spacers 
should  be  removed  from  inside  the  forms  as  fast 
as  concrete  is  placed  up  to  a  level  with  them.  In 
placing  the  concrete  the  layers  should  continue 
of  uniform  thickness  all  around  the  foundation 
enclosure  and  at  a  uniform  level.  This  means 
that  the  work  should  not  be  finished  all  at  once  in 
one  place  until  the  .forms  are  filled,  unless  a 
stop-board  is  fastened  vertically  in  the  forms  to 
make  a  vertical  joint,  and  then  only  for  work 
belowground  where  such  a  joint  would  be  no 
objection.  Under  no  circumstances  should  more 
concrete  be  mixed  at  one  time  than  can  be  placed 
within  thirty  minutes,  and  in  case  any  of  that 
which  has  been  mixed  commences  to  stiffen  or 
harden  before  it  can  be  used,  it  should  not  be 
softened  up  ("retempered")  by  adding  more 
water  and  remixing  it,  but  should  be  thrown  away. 


60  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

Retempered  concrete  will  not  acquire  the  desired 
strength  when  finally  hardened. 

If  a  stop-board  has  been  used  to  form  a  vertical 
joint  in  the  construction,  then  when  concreting  is 
resumed  in  the  adjoining  section,  this  stop  can 
be  removed  and  the  concrete  previously  placed 
will  have  so  hardened  that  it  will  serve  as  an  end 
form. 

Where  a  certain  piece  of  work  cannot  be 
finished  in  one  day,  the  work  at  the  close  of  a  day 
should  be  left  with  a  rough  top  surface  in  the 
forms.  Preparatory  to  placing  concrete  the  follow- 
ing day,  the  surface  of  the  previous  day's  work 
should  be  well  scrubbed  and  washed  off  with  a 
broom  and  water  and  painted  with  a  mixture  of 
pure  cement  and  water,  mixed  to  the  consistency 
of  cream  and  applied  with  a  whitewash  brush. 
Fresh  concrete  should  at  once  be  placed  and  will 
practically  unite  with  the  old  without  leaving  a 
construction  seam  or  a  joint.  Such  a  precaution 
is  not  necessarily  required  in  ordinary  foundation 
work  where  the  building  is  not  to  have  a  cellar  or 
basement,  but  if  watertightness  is  desired  it  is 
imperative  that  such  a  precaution  be  taken  to 
join  two  days'  concreting, 

An  admirable  service  is  performed  by  concrete 
in  the  construction  of  foundations  for  gasoline 
engines,  cream  separators,  and  similar  small 
machines.  For  such  work  excavation  should  be 
carried  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  insure  a  firm  bear- 
ing and  necessary  provision  must  be  made  when 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    61 


designing  the  forms  to  make  a  template  with  holes 
bored  in  it  in  the  same  relative  position  as  the 
holes  in  the  machine  base,  so  that  bolts  can  be 
embedded  in  the  concrete  to  permit  afterward 
bolting  the  machine  to  the  foundation.  Just  how 
this  work  is  provided  for  will  be  seen  in  an  ac- 
companying illustration  (Fig.  12). 


FIG.  12. — Simple  Form  for  Machinery  Foundations. 

Some  of  the  principles  which  must  be  observed 
to  secure  the  best  results  will  be  briefly  men- 
tioned. Carrying  capacity  is  a  quality  chiefly 
sought  in  any  foundation,  and  permanence  is  a 
consideration  secondary  only  to  strength.  The 
cost  of  a  well-built  concrete  foundation  is  con- 
siderably less  than  that  of  one  constructed  of  any 
other  suitable  building  material  when  strength 


62  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


and  durability  are  considered.  Under  average 
conditions,  the  time  required  for  building  a  con- 
crete engine  or  machinery  foundation  is  shorter 
than  that  required  to  build  of  brick  or  stone. 
Concrete  is  the  only  foundation  material  that  may 
readily  be  adapted  to  slopes,  change  of  grade  or 


FIG.  13. — Simple  Form  for  Foundation  Construction  Belowground. 

other  irregularities  in  the  subgrade  on  which  the 
foundation  is  to  be  placed. 

Where  soil  is  reasonably  firm,  no  form  will  be 
required  for  an  engine  foundation,  except  for  the 
portion  above  ground  level,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12. 
Consequently  the  excavation  should  be  carefully 
made  in  a  manner  to  prevent  caving  in  of  the  sides 
and  should  not  be  larger  than  the  size  of  founda- 
tion required  satisfactorily  to  hold  the  engine  or 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    63 

machine  to  be  placed  thereon.     The  size  of  the 
foundation  and  the  corresponding  size  of  the  ex- 


FIG.  14. — Form  Construction  for  Concrete  Wall  Aboveground. 


-.-Spacer 


FIG.  15. — Method  of  Tying  or  Locking  Wall  and  Column  Form. 

cavation  will,  of  course,  be  determined  by  the 
type  and  size  of  engine  or  machine  to  be  set,  and 
will  usually  be  indicated  by  instructions  for  set- 


64  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

ting  the  engine,  which  are  furnished  by  all  engine 
manufacturers.  Concrete  meets  all  requirements 
of  rigidity  and  appearance  required  in  founda- 
tions for  gasoline  engines,  cream  separators  and 
other  stationary  machinery. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  reinforce  concrete  en- 
gine foundations  unless  they  are  to  be  subjected 
to  excessive  side  thrusts,  vibration,  or  other  un- 
usual strain.  Where  they  extend  aboveground 
some  distance,  reinforcing  is  occasionally  used  in 
large  foundations  to  counteract  the  effect  of  con- 
traction and  expansion  from  temperature 
changes,  but  this  does  not  apply  to  small  work. 

The  safe  loading  of  concrete  in  foundation 
construction  is  as  follows : 

1:2:4  concrete,  47  tons  per  square  foot, 
1 :  2J :  5  concrete,  41  tons  per  square  foot, 
1:3:6  concrete,  36  tons  per  square  foot. 

(A  "f actor  of  safety"  of  4  was  allowed  in  com- 
puting this  loading.) 

Engine  foundations  should  be  made  with  suf- 
ficient footing  so  that  the  allowable  pressure  upon 
the  soil  will  not  be  exceeded.  The  bearing  power 
of  soils  varies,  and  is  usually  considered  to  be  as 
follows : 

Ledge  Rock  36  tons  per  square  foot, 

Hardpan  8  tons  per  square  foot, 

Gravel  5  tons  per  square  foot, 

Clean  Sand  4  tons  per  square  foot, 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  65 

Dry  Clay  3  tons  per  square  foot, 
Wet  Clay  2  tons  per  square  foot, 
Loam  1  tori  per  square  foot. 

To  avoid  spreading,  sand  must  be  confined 
when  wet. 

Two-inch  lumber  is  to  be  preferred  for  the  form 
aboveground  although  1-inch  boards  may  be  used 
for  small  foundations.  Notice  that  the  boards 
are  shown  extending  beyond  the  form  corners. 
This  overreaching  is  merely  to  avoid  cutting  and 
thus  save  lumber,  as  by  following  this  method 
the  lumber  may  be  cleaned,  nails  removed,  and 
the  boards  again  used  for  some  other  purpose. 

Anchor  bolts  of  the  size  specified  by  the  engine 
manufacturer  may  be  set  by  the  method  illus- 
trated. A  template  should  be  constructed  of 
straight-grained,  1-inch  material,  fastened  to- 
gether by  screws.  Holes  slightly  larger  than  the 
bolts  should  be  bored  in  the  template  to  conform 
to  the  location  of  the  holes  in  the  engine  base. 
The  bolts  are  suspended  head  downward,  from 
the  template,  with  threaded  ends  projecting  above 
the  template,  a  distance  not  less  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  engine  base  and  nuts  to  be  used. 
Anchor  plates  or  large  washers  should  be  placed 
over  bolt  heads  to  prevent  bolts  from  pulling  out 
of  the  concrete.  Bolt  ends  projecting  above  the 
template  should  be  covered  to  prevent  concrete 
from  touching  them  when  filling  the  forms.  Care 
should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  bolts  as  nearly 


66  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

perpendicular  as  possible  while  placing  the  con- 
crete. When  the  concrete  has  partly  hardened, 
the  template  may  be  removed  and  the  foundation 
top  finished  to  a  level  surface,  care  being  taken 
not  to  strike  the  projecting  bolt  ends,  as  the  fresh 
concrete  offers  but  slight  resistance.  By  making 
bolts  2  inches  longer  and  threading  them  2  inches 
farther  from  the  end,  the  concrete  may  be  allowed 
thoroughly  to  harden  before  removing  the  tem- 
plate, which  in  that  case  is  supported  by  2-inch 
blocks  placed  on  top  of  the  forms,  allowing  space 
for  finishing  the  concrete  surface  under  the  tem- 
plate. The  engine  may  be  placed  in  position  after 
the  concrete  has  thoroughly  hardened,  which  will 
require  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  depending 
upon  weather  conditions.  The  same  principles  as 
are  described  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  apply 
to  setting  any  other  machines. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  REINFORCING  AND  THE 
MATERIALS  USED 

Concrete  shows  great  strength  in  supporting 
loads  that  are  placed  directly  upon  it,  but  it  is 
relatively  weak  when  subjected  to  strains  that 
tend  to  pull  it  apart  (see  Fig.  16).  In  some  parts 
or  types  of  construction  it  is  therefore  necessary 
to  reinforce  the  concrete  by  embedding  in  it  at 
the  time  of  placing,  wires,  steel  rods  or  some 
kind  of  metal  fabric,  to  increase  its  ability  to 
withstand  pulling  strains  (tension)  and  at  the 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  67 


same  time  obtain  full  benefit  of  its  compressive 
strength.  Reinforcing  also  often  results  in 
economy  of  concrete  required. 

Common  types  of  construction  where  reinforc- 


Tension 
Without  Reinforcing 


-ct- 


Compression 


Rei  n-forced 


FIG.  16. — Illustrating  Beam  Fracture  where  Concrete  is  not  Rein- 
forced, and  when  it  is. 

ing  is  necessary  are  fence  posts,  watering  troughs 
and  tanks,  beams,  columns,  large  floor  slabs,  roof 
slabs,  etc. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  a  fixed  rule  that  will 
serve  as  an  invariable  guide  for  determining  the 


68  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


amount  of  reinforcing  required  for  various  struc- 
tures, but  as  an  illustration,  it  may  be  said  the 
quantity  of  reinforcing  metal  required  in  beams 
and  roof  or  .floor  slabs  may  vary  from  |  to  1£ 
per  cent  of  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  concrete 
section.  More  specific  illustrations  will  be  given 


"Tfci. 

Upper  Side 

in  Tension 

1 

Load 

Cantilever  Noi  Reinforced 

FIG.  16a. — Concrete  Beam  as  Cantilever. 

later  when  describing  particular  types  of  con- 
struction. 

The  ratio  of  concrete's  strength  in  resisting 
pulling  strains  (tension)  as  compared  to  its 
strength  in  supporting  loads  placed  directly  upon 
it  (compression)  is  about  1  to  10.  Steel  is  strong 
in  tension,  although  rods  and  wire  mesh,  which  are 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  69 

the  common  forms  of  steel  used  for  reinforcing, 
will  bend  easily,  and  therefore  must  be  placed  so 
as  at  once  to  take  up  the  load  of  tension  which 
may  be  brought  upon  the  concrete.  The  ideal 
position  for  reinforcing  steel  is  at  the  surface  of 
the  side  or  face  of  the  concrete  member  that  is  to 
be  subjected  to  tension.  As  this  position  is  not 
practicable  in  practice,  the  steel  must  be  embed- 
ded in  the  concrete  just  as  near  the  outer  surface 
where  it  is  to  resist  tension  as  possible,  and  at 
the  same  time  permit  surrounding  it  with  concrete 
to  form  a  perfect  bond  or  union  between  concrete 
and  steel.  The  distance  from  the  surface  will 
sometimes  vary  in  accordance  with  the  size  of 
pebbles  or  broken  stone  being  used  in  the  con- 
crete mixture. 

The  side  of  any  concrete  member  that  may  be 
exposed  to  pulling  strains  may  not  always  be  the 
same  side  as  is  true  in  a  beam,  where  the  lower 
side  is  always  the  one.  As  an  example,  take  a 
concrete  fence  post  (Fig.  17).  As  one  cannot  tell 
from  which  direction  the  strains  may  come,  a 
fence  post  is  reinforced  at  all  four  corners. 

Sometimes  a  concrete  structure  may  be  of  such 
shape  and  weight  that  it  might  crack  on  account 
of  unstable  foundation  and  unequal  settlement; 
likewise  a  concrete  trough  full  of  water  may 
freeze,  therefore  the  strains  of  tension  would 
be  exerted  on  all  sides  of  the  structure  by  the 
expansion  of  the  ice. 

To  be  suitable  for  reinforcing  concrete,  steel 


70  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

should  possess  certain  particular  qualities.  This 
means  that  only  steel  manufactured  to  have  cer- 
tain chemical  composition  and  other  properties 
should  be  used.  Generally  speaking,  the  home 
worker  had  best  confine  his  choice  to  some  type  of 


H-i 

Direction  of  Pull                      ^ 

^••:>:; 
-w^-v>*» 

!  If  pull  were  in  opposite 
direction,  dreak  would 
occur  on  Side  opposite 
to  that  shown  '  ' 

FIG.  17. — Illustrating  the  Requirements  of  Fence  Post 
Reinforcement. 


round  or  square  twisted  bars,  or  to  some  one  of 
the  woven  mesh  wire  fabrics  like  those  used  for 
fencing,  although  the  type  of  fabric  made  for 
reinforcing  is  not  necessarily  intended  for  fenc- 
ing. Any  attempt  to  substitute  barbed  wire,  old 
scrap  iron,  pipes  or  similar  odds  and  ends  of 
scrap  metal  will  not  result  in  the  same  success 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  71 

and  security  of  construction  that  will  follow  using 
proper  reinforcing  materials. 

Round  bars  will  be  found  easiest  to  obtain 
under  most  conditions  and  will  be  suited  to  the 
general  run  of  home  concrete  wc>rk.  One  should 
remember  that  the  steel  or  iron  bars  which  he 
may  be  able  to  obtain  from  the  local  blacksmith 
shop  may  not  have  the  desired  qualities  for  con- 
crete reinforcement.  It  will  therefore  be  found 
best  to  purchase  reinforcing  steel  from  some 
dealer  or  manufacturer  making  a  specialty  of 
such  material. 

There  are  various  types  of  so-called  ' '  de- 
formed" bars  used  in  reinforced  concrete  work. 
These  are  variously  shaped  in  rolling,  with  the 
object  of  increasing  the  "mechanical  bond"  be- 
tween concrete  and  steel.  Most  of  these,  however, 
are  subject  to  some  kind  of  patent-right  control 
and  therefore  are  higher  priced  than  plain  round 
or  square  twisted  rods.  If  the  concrete  is  mixed 
to  the  right  consistency  and  properly  placed  there 
will  be  a  good  bond  between  the  concrete  and 
metal,  so  that  there  is  really  no  advantage  in  using 
any  of  the  deformed  types  of  bars  for  ordinary 
concrete  construction. 

In  a  beam,  floor  slab  or  roof  slab,  steel  must  be 
near  the  bottom  face  of  the  beam  or  slab.  In 
a  wall  that  is  to  withstand  earth  pressure,  it 
should  be  on  the  face  farthest  away  from  the 
earth.  In  a  tank  that  is  to  withstand  water  pres- 
sure, it  should  in  theory  be  near  the  outside  (far- 


72  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

thest  away  from  the  water),  but  in  practice  it  is 
more  convenient  in  walls  that  are  to  withstand 
earth  pressure  and  walls  that  are  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  water  to  use  a  little  larger  reinforc- 
ing or  more  steel  than  might  really  be  necessary 
if  it  were  placed  where  it  theoretically  belongs, 
and  to  place  it  near  the  center  of  the  wall.  This 
makes  placing  of  concrete  easier.  Whenever  plans 
call  for  placing  reinforcing  in  a  certain  position, 
the  plans  should  be  followed  exactly.  Sometimes 
walls  are  designed  in  which  reinforcing  is  placed 
near  both  inner  and  outer  faces. 

One  strain  of  tension  which  is  brought  upon 
concrete  is  the  tension  due  to  expansion  of  the 
mass  under  temperature  changes,  that  is,  when 
concrete  rises  in  temperature  corresponding  to 
temperature  changes  of  the  air,  the  mass  will 
expand  as  the  temperature  rises.  Expansion  is 
somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  one  inch  per 
hundred  feet.  Fortunately  steel  expands  at  prac- 
tically the  same  rate.  Therefore,  reinforcing  steel 
not  only  resists  the  tendency  for  the  concrete  to 
crack,  but  in  expanding  with  it  at  practically  the 
same  rate,  the  bond  between  the  steel  and  con- 
crete is  not  broken. 

Reinforcing  steel  should  be  kept  clean  until 
used.  Any  coating  of  scaly  rust  or  mill  scale  or 
a  coating  of  oil  will  prevent  the  concrete  from 
forming  a  good  bond  with  it,  hence  will  prevent 
the  construction  from  having  the  strength  that 
might  be  expected  from  incorporating  the  steel 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  73 

Whenever  reinforcing  bars  have  to  be  shaped, 
as  in  placing  them  around  a  corner  of  a  tank,  they 
should  be  very  carefully  bent  so  that  the  rods  will 
lie  in  exactly  the  desired  position  in  the  concrete. 

Any  temporary  block  supports  or  stays  that  are 
to  be  used  to  hold  reinforcing  in  correct  position 
while  concrete  is  being  placed  should  be  removed 
as  rapidly  as  concrete  is  placed  up  to  them.  Both 
rods  and  mesh  when  lapped  should  be  securely 
wired  together.  Soft  black  No.  16  or  No.  18  gage 
wire  is  tough  and  pliable  and  is  the  common 
material  used  for  binding  or  tying  together  rods 
and  fabric  when  lapped  or  spliced. 

CONCRETE  WALLS  AND  FENCES 

Concrete  lends  itself  admirably  to  the  con- 
struction of  walls  and  fences,  although  in  the 
latter  class  of  construction  there  is  a  limit  to 
the  variety  of  work  which  can  be  produced  by 
the  average  home  worker.  Form  construction  for 
anything  like  a  fence  having  the  appearance  of  a 
wood  picket  fence  is  very  complicated  and  placing 
of  the  concrete  is  difficult.  On  the  other  hand 
fences  which  are  essentially  a  post-and-rail  com- 
bination are  simple,  as  they  represent  unit  con- 
struction; that  is,  the  posts  and  rails  are  cast 
separately  and  the  units  afterward  erected  in 
just  about  the  same  manner  as  a  wood  post  and 
rail  fence  would  be  set  up  (see  Fig.  18).  Con- 
sidering the  time  element,  however,  such  classes 


74  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

of  concrete  fences  would  better  be  replaced  by 
some  one  of  several  types  of  light  panel  wall  con- 
struction. The  form  system  shown  by  Figs.  9 
and  10  is  very  adaptable  to  panel  fence  or  wall 
construction. 

In  the  post  and  rail  fence  (Fig.  18)  posts  are 


FIG.  18.— Post-and-Ra.il  Type  of  Concrete  Fence. 

square  and  reinforced  with  f-inch  rods,  placed 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  each  corner.  The 
"rails"  are  2  inches  thick  and  6  inches  wide, 
reinforced  with  two  i-inch  rods,  running  the 
entire  length  one  inch  distant  from  each  edge. 
Posts  should  be  made  of  a  1 :  2 :  3  mixture,  in  which 
the  large  aggregate,  that  is,  pebbles  or  broken 
stone,  is  not  larger  than  f  inch  in  greatest  di- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    75 


mension,  while  the  rails  should  be  made  of  a 
1:2:3  mixture  containing  a  uniformly  graded  ag- 
gregate ranging  from  the  finer  particles  up  to 
J  inch  in  greatest  dimension. 

The  particular  disadvantage  of  a  unit  post  and 
rail  fence  of  this  kind  is  that  the  different  mem- 
bers must  be  thirty  days  old  before  they  can  be 
set  in  place,  that  is,  they  should  be  allowed  to 
harden  that  length  of  time  before  being  used,  and 
as  the  "rails"  should  be  left  in  the  molds  for  a 


FIG.  19. — Detail  of  Post  and  Form  Construction  Shown  in  Figs. 
20  and  21. 

day  or  two  before  handling,  this  requires  a  large 
quantity  of  molds  and  considerable  facilities  for 
properly  storing  the  units  until  used. 

In  the  various  types  of  panel  wall  or  panel 
fence  construction,  the  concrete  is  cast  in  place. 
Ordinary  panel  forms  can  be  used  and  these  may 
be  removed  usually  within  24  hours  after  placing 
the  concrete,  thus  not  many  forms  are  required. 
In  Figs.  19,  20  and  21  the  design  represents  a 
wall  section  3  inches  thick  with  triangular  mesh 
fabric  for  reinforcement.  The  posts  are  cast  in 
place  and  are  of  such  shape  (Fig.  19)  that  when 


76  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

the  panels  are  cast,  they  interlock  with  the  posts. 
Concrete  for  such  construction  as  this  should  be 


FIG.  20.— Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  19  in  Process. 

a  1:2:3  mixture  in  which  the  coarse  aggregate 
does  not  exceed  f-inch  in  size. 

In  another  design  (Fig.  22)  is  shown  a  post  and 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    77 


FIG.  21. — Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  19  in  Process. 


78  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


panel  construction  in  which  the  posts  are  also 
cast  in  place,  with  a  recess  in  two  faces  that  will 
permit  the  wall  panels  to  enter  when  they  are 
subsequently  cast.  Wall  panels  rest  on  a  founda- 
tion which  is  10  inches  wide  and  18  inches  deep, 
vertical  rods  being  placed  in  this  foundation  (Fig. 
23)  so  as  to  lap  with  the  vertical  rods  in  the  wall 
panels.  Posts  may  be  of  any  desired  dimension, 
but  in  this  particular  instance  are  supposed  to  be 


& 

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'•'•Place- 

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V               '''Form  Stud 

FIG.  22. — Post  and  Panel  Wall  or  Fence  Cast  in  Place. 

10  inches  square,  reinforced  with  1-inch  or  f- 
inch  rods,  placed  li  inches  from  the  outer  face 
at  each  corner.  The  height  may  be  varied  as  de- 
sired. 

Panels  are  16  feet  long  and  4  inches  thick  and, 
reinforced  with  rods  k  inch  in  diameter,  placed 
18  inches  apart  center  to  center,  both  vertically 
and  horizontally,  being  assembled  as  a  sort  of 
lattice  before  being  raised  in  position  and  well 
wired  together  where  they  intersect  or  cross  (see 
Fig.  23).  Enough  forms  should  be  provided  for 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  79 


FIG.  23. — Various  Details  of  the  Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  22. 


FIG.  24.— Various  Details  of  the  Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  22. 


80   CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


FIG.  25. — Various  Details  of  the  Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  22. 


FIG.  26.— Various  Details  of  the  Construction  Illustrated  in  Fig.  22. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  81 

such  construction  to  accommodate  one  day's  plac- 
ing of  concrete,  then  on  the  following  day  the 
forms  first  used  the  preceding  day  can  be  removed 
and  placed  ahead  for  commencing  the  day's  work, 
this  operation  continuing  as  concreting  pro- 
ceeds during  the  day.  Figs.  24,  25  and  26  show 
details  of  the  work. 

A  1 : 3 :  5  mixture  will  be  suited  for  the  founda- 
tions for  panels,  although  it  may  be  just  as  con- 
venient and  in  the  end  as  economical  if  a  1:2:4 
mixture  is  used  throughout  rather  than  go  to  the 
trouble  of  preparing  and  using  two  different  con- 
crete mixtures.  Posts  should  be  of  a  1 :  2 :  4  mix- 
ture throughout. 

FENCE,  GATE,  CLOTHES-LINE,  AND  GRAPE- 
ARBOR  POSTS 

Owing  to  the  increasing  scarcity  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  of  wood  suited  to  fence  posts, 
one  of  the  most  timely  uses  of  concrete  on  the 
farm  is  for  fence  posts.  When  one  realizes  the 
expenditure  of  time  and  labor  necessary  to  keep 
a  fence  in  which  wood  posts  are  used  in  proper 
repair,  it  is  not  surprising  that  concrete  posts 
should  have  gained  in  popularity  during  recent 
years.  Wood  posts,  especially  those  that  are  most 
desirable,  have  advanced  in  price  until  in  most 
sections  of  the  country  they  are  just  as  expen- 
sive as  concrete  posts,  with  the  latter  in  greater 
favor  because  being  fireproof  and  rotproof.  The 


82  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


life  of  a  cedar  post  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  cannot  be  expected  to  exceed  15  years. 
Concrete  posts  properly  made  should  have  an  al- 
most unlimited  life;  and  where  good  sand  and 
gravel  can  be  obtained  on  the  farm  or  nearby, 
they  can  in  some  instanc.es  be  made  for  less  than 
a  good  cedar  post  now  costs. 

POST  MOLDS 

If  a  large  quantity  of  fence  posts  is  to  be  made 
it  will  well  pay  the  home  worker  to  purchase  some 


r  Platform 


Platform 


".'BlocHs  and  Wedges, 


FIG.  27. — Ho  ne-made  Gang  Mold  for  Concrete  Fence  Posts. 

one  of  the  several  types  of  commerical  fence 
post  molds.  But  it  is  very  easy  to  make  a  home- 
made mold  (see  Fig.  27)  that  will  answer  ad- 
mirably foi  concrete  post  making  during  spare 
hours. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  83 

Commercial  molds  are  usually  of  sheet  steel 
and,  taking  all  types  into  consideration,  are  manu- 
factured so  that  concrete  posts  can  be  made  of  al- 
most any  shape  desired — round,  square,  rectan- 
gular and  semi-elliptical,  and  both  straight  and 
tapered.  Choice  of  size  and  shape  is  largely  a 
matter  of  individual  preference,  although  for 
general  line-fence  purposes  no  post  should  be 
smaller  than  3  by  3  inches  at  the  top  and  4J  by 
4i  inches  at  the  bottom,  this  for  a  length  of  7 
feet.  In  fact,  it  will  be  found  perhaps  easier  to 
make  a  post  3i  or  4  inches  square  at  the  top 
and  5  inches  square  at  the  bottom,  these  dimen- 
sions being  of  advantage  in  facilitating  the  pro- 
per placing  of  reinforcing — one  of  the  most  im- 
portant details  of  fence  post  manufacture. 

MIXTURES  FOR  FENCE  POSTS 

Although  concrete  line  fence  posts  have  been 
made  out  of  a  mixture  consisting  of  1  part  of 
cement  and  3  parts  of  well-graded  sand  in  which 
the  particles  ranged  from  the  finest  permissible 
up  to  J  inch,  such  a  mixture  will  not  ordinarily 
give  a  post  of  as  great  strength  as  a  properly 
proportioned  1:2:3  mixture  in  which  the  coarse 
aggregate  (pebbles  or  broken  stone)  consists  of 
particles  graded  from  J  up  to  f  inches.  A  1:2:4 
mixture  for  fence  posts  has  often  been  recom- 
mended, but  as  the  home  worker  is  not  always 
careful  uniformly  to  grade  his  materials  the 


84  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

1:2:3  mixture  compensates  in  a  measure  for  pos- 
sible neglect  in  this  respect  and  therefore  is  a 
safer  mixture  to  use. 


COST  OF  CONCRETE  POSTS 

A  rectangular  post  of  average  size  may  range 
in  price  from  20  to  35  cents,  but  will  probably 
average  around  24  or  25  cents.  These  figures 
are  based  on  the  assumption  that  all  materials 
must  be  purchased,  and  that  Portland  cement  will 
cost  $2  per  barrel,  sand  and  gravel  $1  per  cubic 
yard,  and  reinforcing  steel  21  cents  per  pound. 
The  farmer  rarely  need  buy  sand  and  gravel, 
and  in  many  instances  can  obtain  cement  for  less 
than  $2  per  barrel,  so  the  cost  can  often  be  re- 
duced. More  than  one  farmer  has  found  it  pos- 
sible to  turn  out  standard  size  concrete  fence 
posts  for  19  cents  each.  Probably  the  cost  may 
safely  be  estimated  as  never  likely  to  exceed  the 
highest  figure  previously  mentioned  and  quite 
often  may  be  below  the  lowest  figure. 

REQUIREMENTS    OF    REINFORCING 

Many  persons  have  a  false  impression  of  re- 
inforcing requirements  for  concrete  .fence  posts. 
Some  have  made  posts  with  a  single  rod  running 
through  the  center,  thinking  that  if  this  one  rod 
contained  the  same  amount  of  steel  as  four 
smaller  rods  spaced  near  the  surface  at  each 
corner,  the  result  would  be  the  same. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  85 

If  a  preceding  explanation  of  the  principles  of 
reinforcing  has  been  understood,  one  can  see  that 
the  single  rod  at  the  center  of  the  post  does  not 
accomplish  the  desired  purpose.  When  set  in 
place,  a  fence  post  may  be  subjected  to  strains  or 
shocks  from  any  direction.  If  the  wires  are 
tightly  attached,  it  certainly  may  receive  pulls 
from  either  direction  along  the  line  of  the  fence, 
as  well  as  shocks  or  blows  from  inside  or  outside 
the  enclosure,  due  to  animals  attempting  to  get 
into  or  out  of  the  pasture  lot.  These  possibilities 
must  be  anticipated,  and  the  only  way  to  do  .so 
successfully  is  to  place  suitable  reinforcement 
near  the  face  at  each  corner  of  a  square  or  rectan- 
gular post,  and  in  a  circular  post  place  the  rein- 
forcing at  points  corresponding  to  four  corners 
of  a  square  post  and  as  near  the  surface  at  the 
circumference  as  possible,  yet  far  enough  away 
to  permit  surrounding  the  rods  with  concrete. 

MATERIALS   FOR  REINFORCING 

Another  false  impression  often  entertained  is 
that  almost  any  kind  of  scrap  wire,  even  barbed 
fence  wire,  will  serve  as  post  reinforcing.  While  it 
is  possible  to  place  reinforcing  in  the  form  of  wires 
in  a  fence  post  so  that  the  amount  of  metal  would 
correspond  to  that  obtained  by  properly  placing 
i-inch  round  rods,  nevertheless,  the  inconven- 
ience of  handling  wire  makes  it  almost  certain 
that  when  the  post  has  been  finished,  the  rein- 


86  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

forcing  metal  will  not  be  in  proper  position  in 
the  concrete,  therefore  will  not  accomplish  the 
desired  results.  All  of  the  kinds  of  wire  com- 
monly recommended  or  suggested  for  reinforcing 
are  far-  more  difficult  to  handle  in  placing  than 
are  straight  rods.  Reinforcing  wire  usually 
comes  in  coils  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  straighten 
it  so  that  it  will  lie  in  the  proper  plane  while 
placing  concrete.  Greater  economy  of  time  and 
much  more  certainty  of  successful  results  follow 
the  use  of  suitable  steel  rods.  . 

An  accompanying  table  will  be  of  considerable 
assistance  to  the  concrete  worker  in  enabling  him 
to  choose  suitable  dimensions  for  his  posts  and 
the  necessary  reinforcing.  This  table  also  gives 
the  volume  of  various  size  posts  in  cubic  feet,  the 
approximate  weight  each  in  pounds,  and  the 
quantity  of  materials  required  for  ten  posts  of 
various  dimensions,  made  of  a  1 :  2 :  3  mixture. 

Referring  again  to  the  desirability  of  making 
fence  posts  of  a  1 :  3  cement-sand  mixture,  one  can 
see  by  examining  the  table  that  for  7-foot  posts 
5  inches  square  at  the  bottom  and  3  inches  square 
at  the  top,  one  barrel  of  cement  will  be  a  little 
more  than  sufficient  to  make  fourteen  posts,  while 
if  a  1 :  2 : 3  mixture  is  used,  the  same  quantity  of 
cement  will  make  twenty  posts  of  the  same  size. 
Hence  there  is  economy  in  the  1:2:3  mixture, 
equalling  very  nearly  33i  per  cent. 

Most  of  the  commercial  fence  post  molds  are 
relatively  inexpensive,  yet  if  a  person  does  not 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    87 


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88  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

desire  to  make  the  expenditure  necessary  to  se- 
cure such  equipment,  the  home-made  mold  shown 
will  answer  all  purposes  admirably.  Such  a  gang 
mold  can  be  made  to  make  a  post  of  any  desired 
dimensions,  and  of  any  capacity  up  to  the  limit 
of  floor  space  or  bottom  board  used  to  rest  the 
mold  on. 

Sides  and  ends  of  molds  are  held  in  place  by 
blocks  and  wedges.  After  the  concrete  has  been 
in  the  mold  12  hours,  wedges  can  be  knocked  out 
so  that  sides,  ends  and  partitions  may  be  re- 
moved, then  the  posts  allowed  to  remain  undis- 
turbed on  the  pallet  or  bottom  board  until  they 
have  become  strong  enough  to  handle  without 
possible  injury.  One-inch  lumber  will  be  suited 
for  the  ends  and  interior  strips  of  such  a  mold, 
but  2-inch  stock  should  be  used  for  outside  pieces. 
Before  being  used  the  entire  mold  must  be  pro- 
tected from  warping  by  painting  with  two  coats 
of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  kerosene,  equal  parts  of 
each,  which  will  also  prevent  the  concrete  from 
sticking  to  the  mold.  Molds  should  be  well 
cleaned  after  use  and  oiled  before  each  filling. 

PLACING  CONCRETE  AND  REINFORCING 

After  having  placed  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
the  bottom  of  the  mold  the  two  reinforcing  rods 
for  that  side  are  laid  in  proper  position,  then  ad- 
ditional concrete  placed  until  within  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  top,  when  the  two  remaining  re- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  89 

inforcing  rods  are  pressed  into  proper  position 
in  the  concrete  and  the  mold  filled  level.  Con- 
crete for  fence  post  manufacture  should  be  mixed 
a  little  wetter  than  quaky  consistency,  so  that 
it  will  settle  to  all  parts  of  the  mold  with  little 
stirring  or  puddling  and  completely  surround  and 
bond  with  the  reinforcing.  It  is  very  important 
that  concrete  fence  posts  be  dense,  and  added 
density  is  secured  by  jarring  or  rapping  the  mold 
in  some  manner  so  as  to  release  air  bubbles  which 
may  be  in  the  concrete  mixture  and  thus  prevent 
resulting  air  pockets  in  the  finished  post.  Some 
of  the  commercial  fence  post  mold  outfits  are  used 
in  connection  with  a  vibrating  table  to  jar  the 
concrete,  thus  making  it  dense  and  compact.  If 
the  home  worker  does  not  find  it  feasible  to  ar- 
range his  gang  mold  on  some  support  so  that 
the  mold  can  be  vibrated  or  shaken  while  the 
concrete  is  being  placed,  then  it  is  well  to  take  a 
stick  or  a  rod  and  stir  the  concrete  gently  along 
the  form  faces  to  release  air  bubbles,  and  to  tap 
the  mold  while  placing  concrete. 

SPACERS  FOR  REINFORCING 

To  hold  reinforcing  rods  in  correct  relative 
position  when  placing  them  in  the  concrete,  it  will 
be  found  advantageous  to  take  some  small  pieces 
of  No.  16  gage  wire  and  twist  it  as  shown  in  Fig. 
28  so  that  loops  are  formed  around  the  rods. 
They  will  thus  be  held  at  the  desired  separation 
in  the  mold  while  placing  concrete. 


90  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


If  concrete  is  placed  at  proper  consistency, 
jogging  the  mold  will  result  in  a  smooth,  dense 
surface  on  the  post  and  cause  a  perfect  bond  or 
union  between  the  concrete  and  the  reinforcing. 
One  must  be  careful  not  to  use  too  much  water 


••*;•:••• 


'  Rods 


Q 


Spacer 


"Rods 


Rods 


FIG.  28. — Common  Sections  for  Reinforced  Concrete  Fence  Posts. 

for  fence  post .  mixtures.  The  concrete  should 
not  be  slushy  nor  soupy,  as  that  will  cause  the 
sand-cement  mortar  to  separate  from  the  peb- 
bles, and  when  the  post  has  thoroughly  hardened 
there  will  be  pockets  in  the  concrete — possibly 
some  of  the  reinforcing  steel  may  be  exposed. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    91 


HARDENING  THE   FINISHED   POSTS 

Posts  must  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out  quickly. 
They  must  be  protected  from  drying  wind  and 
sunlight  and  should  be  covered  with  wet  straw 
or  chaff,  which  should  be  kept  wet  for  a  week  or 
ten  days  before  attempting  to  store  them  any- 
where out  of  doors.  If  they  have  been  made 
under  usual  summer  weather  conditions  it  will 
be  safe  to  lift  them  from  the  floor  or  bottom  sup- 
port of  the  mold  within  36  hours  after  placing 
the  concrete.  Extreme  care,  however,  should  be 
used  in  handling  them,  as  cracks  will  affect  the 
strength  of  the  finished  post.  Posts  may  be  care- 
fully piled  in  some  convenient  shed  (not  corded  up, 
however,  in  piles  one  on  top  of  the  other,  but 
spread  out  on  an  even  support  so  that  the  protec- 
tive wet  chaff  covering  may  be  kept  over  them) 
until  hardening  has  progressed  sufficiently  to  per- 
mit moving  them  out  of  doors  to  complete  harden- 
ing naturally.  Here  they  may  be  set  up  on  end, 
resting  against  a  building  or  a  wall,  and  by  the 
time  they  are  30  days  old,  they  will  be  in  good 
condition  to  set  in  the  fence  line. 

FASTENING   LINE   WIRES 

Numerous  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to 
the  best  way  of  fastening  line  wires  to  concrete 
fence  posts.  Some  advocate  inserting  wood  or 
metal  pegs  in  the  concrete  at  the  time  of  placing. 


92  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

then  withdrawing  these  pegs  when  the  concrete 
has  stiffened,  leaving  a  small  hole  entirely 
through  the  post  to  receive  a  tie  wire,  the  ends 
of  which  are  wrapped  around  the  fence  wires. 
Other  methods  have  consisted  of  embedding  eye- 
let fasteners  in  the  concrete,  or  embedding  small 
bolts  with  loops  at  one  end  in  the  same  manner. 
Holes  in  the  post,  no  matter  how  small  they  may 
be,  tend  to  weaken  it.  Eyelet  fasteners  will 
eventually  rust  off.  By  far  the  simplest  method 
that  has  been  used  consists  of  tying  the  fence 
wire  to  the  post  by  means  of  a  loop  of  wire  passed 
around  it  on  three  sides  using  the  ends  which 
project  at  the  back  of  the  post  to  wrap  around 
the  line  wire,  exactly  as  telephone  or  telegraph 
wires  are  fastened  to  the  glass  insulators  on 
poles. 

CORNER  POSTS 

Concrete  corner  posts  on  account  of  the  strains 
to  which  they  are  subjected  must,  of  course,  be 
larger  than  line  posts  (see  Figs.  29  and  30). 
Depending  upon  the  length  of  the  fence  stretched 
from  them,  the  size  required  may  vary  within 
a  considerable  range.  Corner  posts  may  be  from 
6  inches  square  up  to  10  or  12  inches  square; 
and  the  amount  of  reinforcing  required  will  de- 
pend upon  the  strain  to  which  the  posts  are  to 
be  put  and  therefore  upon  their  square  dimen- 
sions. In  a  6  by  6  or  7  by  7  post  there  should  be 
four  rods  at  least  -&  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  93 

A  10  by  10  post  should  have  four  fj-inch  rods; 
a  12  by  12  post,  four  1-inch  rods. 

On  account  of  their  weight  and  the  consequent 
inconvenience  of  handling,  corner  posts  larger 
than  8  inches  square  are  usually  cast  in  place; 
that  is,  a  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground,  rods  properly 
placed,  concrete  deposited  to  ground  level,  and  the 


FIG.  29. — Concrete  Line  and  Corner  Fence  Post. 

form  set  right  up  in  position,  properly  braced 
where  the  post  is  to  stand,  and  the  concrete 
placed  in  the  form  from  the  end.  Reinforcing 
rods  should  extend  from  the  bottom  of  the  foun- 
dation right  up  through  the  post.  When  the  earth 
is  firm  there  will  be  no  need  to  use  a  form  for 
the  part  that  is  to  be  underground;  if  not  firm, 
it  is  best  to  build  a  form  for  the  entire  post, 


94  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

that  is,  for  both  the  portions  below  and  above 
ground.     The  portion  belowground  had  best  be 


FIG.  30. — Corner  Post  with  Brace  Cast  Monolithic  with  it. 

of  larger  square  dimensions  than  aboveground, 
for  stability. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    95 

BRACES    FOR   CORNER   POSTS 

Sometimes  corner  posts  complete  with  braces 
are  cast  as  one  piece  as  in  Fig.  30.  Form  con- 
struction will  readily  suggest  itself.  Of  course, 
the  brace  also  must  be  suitably  reinforced  with 
rods  in  each  corner,  of  proper  size. 

GATE  POSTS 

Gate  posts  or  entranceway  posts  are  also  mas- 
sive and  are  cast  in  place  the  same  as  heavy  cor- 
ner posts.  '  If  subjected  to  strains  of  fence 
stretched  from  them  they  must  be  braced.  Like- 
wise, reinforcing  rods  must  be  chosen  as  regards 
size  with  reference  to  the  size  of  post  and  the 
load  or  stains  to  which  it  is  to  be  subjected,  such 
as  heavy,  swinging  iron  gates,  and  fence  stretched 
from  them.  The  reason  why  reinforcing  must 
extend  down  below  ground  level  in  corner  and 
gate  posts  is  to  resist  the  possibility  of  their 
breaking  at  ground  level  under  severe  strains  or 
load. 

FORMS  FOR  GATE  POSTS 

Form  construction  for  entranceway  or  gate 
posts  is  simple  or  complicated,  depending  upon 
the  design  which  it  is  intended  to  execute.  Us- 
ually such  posts  are  made  square  or  round.  In 
the  latter  case  a  very  convenient  way  of  making 
the  form  is  to  use  a  section  of  old  metal  smoke- 


96  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

stack  of  the  required  diameter,  first  cutting  this 
down  the  entire  length  so  that  after  concrete  has 
been  'placed,  the  form  can  be  removed.  Wires 
or  other  fastenings  will  have  to  be  wrapped 
around  this  form  after  it  has  been  cut  to  prevent 
it  from  spreading  open  while  concrete  is  being 
placed. 

RUBBLE   CONCRETE   POSTS 

Another  and  easy  way  to  construct  entrance- 
way  or  gateway  posts  consists  of  using  rubble 
stones  or  field  stones  ranging  from  3  to  5  inches 
in  diameter.  Such  stones  are  selected  so  that 
they  will  form  a  pleasing  arrangement  on  the 
exposed  face  of  the  work  when  forms  are  re- 
moved. They  are  laid  around  against  the  inside 
of  the  form  as  shown  in  an  accompanying  sketch, 
Fig.  31,  a  1:3  cement  mortar  being  used  to  bed 
them.  Then  a  quaky  1:2:4  concrete  mixture  is 
used  to  fill  in  the  center.  Work  should  be  done 
so  that  concrete  is  placed  in  layers  no  greater 
than  6  inches  at  a  time.  Proper  reinforcing  must 
be  used  and  placed  a  little  back  of  the  stones. 
Rubble  stones  must  be  wet  when  placed  so  that 
the  concrete  will  bond  to  them.  A  concrete  cap 
can  be  cast  separately  and  placed  on  the  rubble 
construction  later  if  desired,  or  the  forms  can  be 
so  built  that  this  cap  will  be  monolithic  with  (a 
part  of)  the  remainder  of  the  work. 

After  forms  have  been  removed  the   surplus 
mortar  in  the  joints  between  stones  should  be 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  97 


picked  back  slightly  and  any  mortar  adhering  to 
the  face  of  the  stones  washed  off  with  a  stiff 


E    I  e  v  ex  \  \  o  r> 


<3C  +  i  on 


(Size  of  Main  Reinforcing 
f/ote<  Rods  w/7/  depend  on  size 
I  of  Posf 


FIG.    31. — Sketch    Showing    Method    of    Constructing    a    Rubble 
Concrete  Gate  Post. 

brush  and  water.     The  appearance  should  be  as 
in  Fig.  32. 


98  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


FIG.  32. — Appearance  of  Finished  Rubble  Work. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  99 

Provision  should  be  made  while  placing  con- 
crete to  embed  necessary  fittings  for  iianging  the 
gates.  Hangers  should  be  threaded  on  the  end 
that  is  to  be  placed  in  the  concrete  and  -a  nut  be 
passed  over  the  threads  so  as  to  prevent  the 
hangers  from  pulling  out  when  gates  are  hung. 

Corner  posts  and  gate  posts  must  also  be  made 
of  a  quaky  concrete.  While  the  concrete  is  being 
placed  in  the  forms,  a  long-handled  spading  tool 
should  be  used  to  spade  the  concrete  next  to  the 
form  face  (except  in  rubble  work)  so  that  there 
will  be  a  smooth,  dense  surface  free  from  stone 
pockets  when  forms  are  removed. 


CLOTHES-LINE  POSTS 

Concrete  posts  from  9  to  10  feet  long  make 
durable  and  practical  grape  arbor  and  clothes- 
line posts  (see  Fig.  33).  They  need  reinforcing 
the  same  as  do  other  concrete  posts  and  the  quan- 
tity of  metal  required  depends  upon  the  square 
dimensions  of  the  posts  and  the  loads  or  strains 
to  which  they  are  to  be  subjected.  They  should 
be  of  a  1:2:3  mixture.  Wires  upon  which  to 
train  vines  or  hang  clothes  may  be  attached  in 
the  same  manner  as  fence  wires  are  attached  to 
line  fence  posts,  but  usually  short  pieces  of  iron 
rod  are  embedded  near  the  top  of  clothes-line 
posts  and  in  grape-vine  posts  wood  plugs  are 
inserted  in  the  soft  concrete  while  placing  and 
these  plugs  withdrawn  when  the  concrete  has 


100  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


FIG.  33.— Clothes-line  Posts  of  Concrete. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  4ND  SHOP  }0i 

stiffened,  thus  forming  holes  through  which  wires 
may  be  strung,  or  if  posts  are  to  form  an  arbor, 
then  the  wood  plugs  may  be  left  in  the  concrete 
and  be  used  as  nail  holds  when  attaching  wood 
slats.  What  has  already  been  said  as  regards 
subjecting  fence  posts  to  pulls  and  strains  until 
after  they  are  a  month  old  applies  also  to  grape 
arbor  and  clothes  line  posts.  They  should  be  pro- 
tected against  too  rapid  drying  by  being  covered 
with  wret  straw,  hay,  or  similar  covering,  and 
sprinkled  often  enough  to  keep  them  moist. 

CONCRETE  TANKS 

Among  the  various  classes  of  concrete)  con- 
struction which  may  be  considered  as  coming 
under  the  heading  of  tanks  are  hog  wallows, 
watering  troughs,  feeding  troughs,  manure  pits 
and  cisterns.  All  these  require  that  the  construc- 
tion be  watertight.  This  makes  a  1:2:3  mixture 
preferable,  although  if  one  can  be  certain  that 
the  materials  are  properly  proportioned  and  uni- 
formly graded  throughout,  a  1:2:4  mixture  may 
accomplish  the  desired  results.  However,  the 
first  mentioned  mixture  is  safer  and  is  recom- 
mended. Small  troughs  or  tanks  such  as  are  to 
be  used  for  hog  feeding  or  watering  (see  Fig. 
34)  can  very  readily  be  cast  upside  down  (see 
Fig.  35)  on  some  smooth  level  surface  like  a 
barn  floor  and  when  the  concrete  has  properly 
hardened  forms  can  be  removed  and  the  con- 


102    COXCpETp  £>N  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


FIG.  34. — Small  Portable  Hog  Feeding  Trough  Cast  Upside  Down. 


FIG.  34a. — Another  Portable  Type  Trough  also  Cast  Upside  Down. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  103 

crete  protected  for  a  week  or  ten  days  by  a  moist 
covering.  Then  the  trough  may  be  set  up  where 
intended  to  use  it. 

REINFORCING  SMALL  TROUGHS 

Poultry  netting  or  similar  fabric  can  often  be 
used  for  reinforcing  small  troughs  in  place  of 


Floor  or  Platform 


FIG.  35. — Form  Construction  for  Small,  Portable  Troughs. 

rods.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  both  is  used 
and  desirable.  Fig.  35  illustrates  clearly  how 
the  forms  for  such  construction  are  made  and  set 
up.  No  further  explanation  should  be  necessary. 

STOCK  TROUGHS 

Large  stock  watering  troughs  on  account  of 
their  bulk  and  weight  must  be  constructed  at 
the  point  where  they  are  to  be  used.  For 
the  same  reason  it  is  quite  essential  that 


104  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

a  suitable  foundation  be  provided  for  them, 
otherwise  unequal  settlement  of  the  ground  will 
most  likely  result  in  causing-  the  concrete  to  crack, 
owing  to  the  strains  put  upon  it  not  only  by  the 
weight  of  the  structure  itself  but  also  the  weight 
of  contents.  Construction  like  that  involved  in 
large  tanks,  troughs,  cisterns  and  manure  pits 
makes  it  impossible  to  lay  down  invariable  rules 
as  to  how  such  structures  shall  be  reinforced. 


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•H~1?  Ove/~fi°w 

%y* 

i__ 

=&      '4'  Round 
l2"Cente 
Bent  up 

Rods                                A<^\ 
r  to  Center 
Into  Sides 

FIG.  36.— Concrete  Watering  Trough  or  Tank. 

This  depends  entirely  upon  its  size  and  conse- 
quently upon  the  weight  of  contents  which  it  is 
to  carry.  Illustrations  show  a  stock  watering 
tank  (Fig.  36),  a  small  concrete  trough  (Fig. 
35),  cistern  (Fig.  39),  and  hog  wallow  (Fig.  40) 
and  manure  pit  (Fig.  41).  All  of  these  belong  es- 
sentially to  the  same  class  of  construction.  Re- 
inforcing required  for  the  stock  watering  tank  of 
the  dimensions  shown  (Fig.  36)  is  specified  in  the 
drawing.  For  the  other  structures,  reinforcing 
will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  structure.  For  the 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  105 


FIG.  37.— Finished  Tank  Similar  to  that  Illustrated  in  Fig.  36. 


FIG  37a. — Concrete  Cistern  Built  Partly  Aboveground. 


106  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

cistern,  if  6  feet  square  and  8  feet  deep,  pro- 
bably J  or  f-inch  rods  12  inches  center  to  center 


FIG.  38, — Another  Trough  Similar  to  Preceding  Types. 

will  be  sufficient.    For  the  small  trough  use  i-inch 
rods  and  1-inch  poultry  netting. 


WATERTIGHTNESS.     HOW  SECURED 

As  tanks  and  cisterns  must  be  watertight  to  ac- 
complish the  desired  purpose,  one  should,  before 
commencing  work,  have  all  materials  on  hand 
ready  for  use,  forms  properly  constructed  and 
in  place,  so  that  work  may  proceed  continuously, 
if  possible,  thus  preventing  seams  or  construction 
joints  that  would  later  open  up  and  cause  leak- 
age. If,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to  sus- 
pend work  after  concreting  has  started,  then  the 
surface  of  concrete  in  the  forms  should  be  left 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  107 

rough,  and  when  concreting  is  to  be  resumed  this 
surface  should  be  well  brushed  and  washed  with 
water,  painted  with  cement  and  water  mixed  to 
the  consistency  of  thick  cream  and  applied  with  a 
whitewash  brush  and  concreting  resumed  im- 
mediately; that  is,  before  the  cement  grout  paint 
has  had  a  chance  to  commence  hardening. 

In  stock  watering  troughs,  cisterns  and  similar 
structures  where  the  floor  is  constructed  mono- 
lithic with  the  sides,  it  is  desirable  that  the  rein- 
forcing of  the  floor  extend  up  into  the  sides,  thus 
forming  vertical  reinforcing  for  those  portions  of 
the  structure.  So  the  rods  must  then  be  bent 
to  the  shape  of  three  sides  of  a  square  or  rectan- 
gle depending  upon  the  shape  of  the  structure. 
Horizontal  rods  must  be  tied  to  vertical  rods  with 
wires  where  the  two  intersect,  so  that  all  reinforc- 
ing will  be  held  in  correct  relative  position  while 
concrete  is  being  placed. 

DETAILS    OF    PLACING    CONCRETE    FOR 
CISTERNS,    ETC. 

Concrete  used  for  cisterns  and  similar  con- 
struction, however,  should  be  of  quaky  consis- 
tency, therefore  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  con- 
struct the  side  walls  and  floors  monolithic.  Hence 
i1  is  easier  to  build  floor  and  walls  separately. 
In  such  a  case,  the  walls  should  start  in  a  trench 
that  has  been  excavated  deep  enough  to  be  below 
possible  frost  penetration.  After  the  walls  are 


108  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

finished  and  concrete  has  hardened  sufficiently 
to  permit  removing  the  forms,  then  the  bottom 
or  floor  of  the  structure  can  be  placed.  The  earth 
should  be  excavated  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  se- 
cure a  firm  foundation  and  if  necessary  there 
should  be  placed  a  fill  of  clean  gravel  or  cinders 
well  tamped  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  proposed 
floor  level.  On  top  of  this  concrete  from  4  to  6 
inches  thick  for  the  floor  can  be  placed.  If  the 
area  does  not  exceed  100  square  feet  or  if  no  one 
dimension  of  the  floor  exceeds  1.0  feet,  it  is  not 
likely  that  reinforcing  will  be  needed  in  the  floor 
when  placed  separate  from  the  walls  and  in  one 
continuous  concreting  operation. 

Before  commencing  to  lay  the  concrete  floor, 
a  i-inch  board  strip  should  be  pkced  all  around 
the  inside  of  the  walls,  the  top  of  (:Ms  strip  being 
at  the  top  of  the  proposed  floor  and  held  away 
from  the  side  walls  by  i-inch  wedges.  These 
wedges  will  when  released  after  the  concrete  floor 
has  hardened  make  it  possible  easily  to  withdraw 
the  wood  strips.  Then  the  space  so  made  should 
be  filled  with  hot  tar  or  asphalt  effectively  to  seal 
the  joint  against  leakage. 

PROTECTION    WHILE    HARDENING 

Like  all  other  concrete  construction,  tanks, 
troughs  and  cisterns  must  be  protected  against 
too  rapid  drying  out.  They  should  not  be  put 
into  use  until  they  are  at  least  a  week  or  ten  days 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  109 

old,  and  during  this  time  the  structure  should  be 
kept  covered  with  wet  canvas,  burlap  or  straw,  so 
that  sun  and  wind  will  not  cause  rapid  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  the  concrete  and  thus  result 
in  a  porous  structure.  If  such  protection  is  not 
afforded  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  then  no  matter 
how  well  the  materials  may  have  been  propor- 
tioned and  placed,  the  resulting  structure  cannot 
be  expected  to  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  would 
result  were  all  necessary  precautions  taken. 

Cisterns  are  sometimes  constructed  either  en- 
tirely or  partly  aboveground.  The  one  shown 
in  the  accompanying  drawing  may  be  constructed 
entirely  belowground  or  entirely  aboveground 
or  partly  aboveground.  In  the  first  case  the 
walls  may  be  uniformly  8  inches  thick  throughout 
because  protected  below  the  ground  the  contents 
of  the  cistern  are  not  likely  to  freeze,  therefore 
there  will  be  no  pressure  caused  from  ice.  If,  how- 
ever, the  structure  is  partly  or  wholly  above- 
ground,  then  the  walls  must  be  battered  or  sloped 
on  the  inside  so  that  the  pressure  resulting  from 
water  freezing  will  be  counteracted.  This  precau- 
tion must  also  be  taken  with  the  stock  tank  de- 
scribed; reference  to  the  drawing  will  show  that 
this  batter  has  been  provided  for  in  the  design. 

Where  entirely  belowground,  the  cistern  floor 
may  commence  at  the  same  level  as  do  the  side 
walls.  Fig.  37 A  shows  how  one  of  these  struc- 
tures would  appear  if  partly  aboveground  and 
intended  to  receive  its  supply  of  water  from  the 


110  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

roof  of  an  adjoining  structure.  If  the  struc- 
ture is  built  entirely  aboveground,  of  course,  both 
inside  and  outside  forms  will  be  necessary.  But 


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"-3  .a 


3£ 


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FIG.  39. — Sectional  View  of  Concrete  Cistern. 

any  portion  of  the  cistern  structure  belowground 
can  be  built  with  inside  forms  only,  if  the  earth 
is  carefully  excavated  and  firm  enough  so  as  to 
be  self-sustaining.  Care  must  be  taken,  however, 
when  placing  the  concrete  in  the  trench  not  to 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  111 

knock  down  any  earth  that  would  thus  become 
partly  mixed  with  the  concrete  and  result  in  por- 
ous and  consequently  leaky  pockets  in  the  wall. 

POSITION    OF    REINFORCING   IN   TANKS 
AND  CISTERNS 

Theoretically  reinforcing  should  be  near  the 
outer  face  of  the  wall  for  an  aboveground  struc- 
ture, but  it  will  be  effective  if  placed  at  the  cen- 
ter, and  in  such  position  will  make  it  easier  to 
place  the  concrete  and  spade  around  it  in  the 
forms  next  to  the  form  face  so  as  to  produce  a 
smooth,  non-porous  surface. 

In  all  tank  and  cistern  construction,  or  similar 
construction,  when  it  is  necessary  to  lap  horizontal 
rods,  laps  should  be  made  at  the  center  of  a  side, 
never  near  or  at  a  corner.  Rods  should  be  lapped 
from  50  to  60  times  their  diameter.  In  the  case  of 
i-inch  rods,  this  means  not  less  than  12  inches.  In 
the  case  of  i-inch  rods,  this  would  mean  not  less 
than  25  inches.  When  mesh  fabric  is  lapped  the 
ends  and  edges  must  be  well  wired  together. 

BUILDING  COVER  SLAB  FOR  CISTERN 

In  setting  the  vertical  rods  to  reinforce  the 
cistern  walls  they  should  be  at  least  2  feet  longer 
than  required  so  that  the  projecting  ends  may  be 
bent  over  and  finally  become  a  part  of  the  re- 
inforcing for  the  roof  or  cover  slab.  After  walls 


112  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

and  floor  have  been  concreted  and  the  concrete 
floor  has  sufficiently  hardened,  a  wood  floor  can 
be  constructed  level  with  the  top  of  side  walls  to 
serve  as  a  form  on  which  to  lay  the  cover  slab. 
This  slab  would  be  6  inches  thick.  A  frame 
should  be  placed  at  the  proper  place  on  this  floor 
to  provide  for  the  manhole  opening  in  the  roof 
or  cover  slab.  This  frame  is  nothing  but  a  bot- 
tomless box  with  its  edges  sloping  inward  so  that 
the  resulting  manhole  opening  in  the  slab  will 
have  a  beveled  edge  to  receive  a  correspondingly 
shaped  concrete  manhole  cover.  This  cover  can 
be  cast  in  the  manhole  opening  in  the  concrete, 
by  lining  this  opening  with  building  or  tar  paper 
to  prevent  the  concrete  from  adhering  to  that  of 
the  cover  slab.  An  eyebolt  fitted  with  a  ring 
should  be  embedded  in  the  cover  slab  at  the  time 
it  is  cast  to  permit  removal  of  the  cover  as  oc- 
casion requires. 

WATER  CONNECTIONS 

In  tank  and  cistern  construction  suitable  pro- 
vision must  be  made  when  setting  up  forms  to 
arrange  for  the  necessary  inlet  and  outlet  for 
water  supply  and  overflow. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  113 

FORM  REMOVAL 

Forms  supporting  the  roof  or  cover  slab  of  the 
cistern  should  not  be  removed  until  the  concrete 
is  at  least  two  weeks  old.  This  applies  if  the 
work  has  been  carried  on  under  favorable 
weather  conditions.  In  cold  weather  it  may  be 
necessary  to  leave  forms  in  place  even  twice  as 
long. 

PAVEMENT  AROUND  WATERING  TROUGHS 

All  stock  watering  troughs  should  have  a  con- 
crete pavement  laid  around  them  so  that  the 
vicinity  will  not  be  wrorked  up  into  a  mudhole 
when  stock  go  to  water.  Directions  for  laying 
pavements  will  be  given  later.  (Circular  tanks 
have  not  been  described  because  form  construc- 
tion is  somewhat  difficult.  Usually  commercial 
silo  forms  are  best  for  such  structures.) 

HOG  WALLOW 

In  constructing  a  concrete  hog  wallow  (Figs. 
40  and  4:0  A)  a  trench  should  be  excavated  so 
that  the  side  walls  will  extend  below  frost  level, 
then  bring  the  walls  up  to  slightly  above  ground 
level.  Afterward  the  interior  of  the  enclosure 
should  be  excavated  and  the  ground  -firmly  com- 
pacted so  as  to  make  a  good  foundation  for  the 
floor,  which  should  be  laid  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  for  the  cistern  floor,  except  that  one 


114  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


Pavement  j"Tar  F 'flea 'Joint 


I 


*&te»»         -•  Corrugations 

<O-  -N  i  ::^'         /  7&/-  /y//<f^ 


"WW'Ywrr,        ;  ..  •'•'i'» 


FIG.  40. — Section  of  Concrete  Hog  Wallow. 


1 


FIG.  40a. — Concrete  Hog  Wallow  in  Course  of  Construction, 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    115 

end  should  slope  upward  so  as  to  be  at  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  wall,  thus  making  an  incline 
for  animals  to  enter  and  leave  the  wallow  easily. 
The  surface  of  this  incline  should  be  corrugated 
with  grooves  so  that  hogs  can  readily  secure  a 
firm  foothold. 


REGULATING  VALVE  FOR  CONTROLLING 
WATER  SUPPLY 

It  is  well  to  make  provision  for  a  separate 
but  adjoining  chamber  in  which  there  is  some 
kind  of  valve  mechanism  similar  to  that  used  in 
flushing  water  closets  so  that  by  connecting  a 
pipe  line  to  a  source  of  water  supply  the  amount 
of  water  in  the  wallow  can  be  automatically  main- 
tained at  the  level  desired.  There  should  be  an 
outlet  arranged  in  the  wallow  so  that  when  oc- 
casion requires  the  wallow  can  be  drained  and 
cleaned  out.  This  means  that  it  will  be  preferable 
to  select  a  slight  elevation  as  a  site  for  the  wal- 
low, so  that  the  drain  leading  away  from  the  trap 
in  the  bottom  will  readily  draw  off  the  contents. 

MANURE  PITS 

Manure  pit  walls  may  be  made  straight  or  bat- 
tered inside.  Probably  the  battered  wall  is  best, 
inasmuch  as  it  permits  compacting  the  manure 
more  solidly  in  the  pit.  The  batter  should  be 
at  the  rate  of  1  inch  for  every  4  inches  of  height. 


116  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

The  top  of  the  walls  should  extend  at  least  6  inches 
aboveground  so  that  surface  water  will  not  wash 
into  the  pit  during  rains.  The  floor  of  the  manure 
pit  need  not  be  more  than  3i  feet  below  the  top 
of  the  side  walls,  as  it  is  not  advisable  to  store 
manure  more  than  3  feet  deep.  Six  inches  will  be 
a  suitable  thickness  for  the  floor  and  this  should 
be  laid  so  that  an  upward  slope  at  one  end  will 
permit  backing  a  wagon  into  the  pit  for  loading. 
Floors  for  manure  pits  must  be  properly  rein- 
forced and  the  concrete  placed  continuously  to 
prevent  joints. 

Every  manure  pit  should  have  as  an  adjunct  a 
small  cistern  connected  to  it  by  a  pipe  drain  so 
that  liquids  from  the  manure  may  drain  into  the 
cistern.  A  1:2:4  concrete  will  be  suited  for 
manure  pit  construction  throughout,  although  the 
adjoining  cistern  should  be  of  1 :  2 :  3  concrete. 

Manure  pits  should  be  planned  in  size  to  ac- 
commodate the  herd  of  stock  for  which  they  are 
to  provide  manure  storage.  If  ten  head  of  stock 
are  to  be  kept  the  manure  pit  should  be  about 
32  by  19  feet  and  have  an  adjoining  cistern  3  by 
5  feet.  For  twenty  head  the  pit  should  be  32  by 
32,  with  a  5  by  5-foot  cistern.  For  thirty  head, 
50  by  32  feet,  with  an  8  by  5-foot  cistern.  For 
forty  head,  65  by  39  feet  with  a  9  by  6-foot  cis- 
tern. For  fifty  head,  82  by  39  feet,  with  a  10 
by  7-  foot  cistern.  As  flies  find  a  convenient  breed- 
ing place  in  manure  piles  it  is  always  advisable 
to  house  a  manure  pit  with  studding  (see  Fig. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  117 

41)  and  attach  fly  screen  wire  to  these  studs  to 
prevent  flies  from  using  the  manure  pile  as  breed- 
ing headquarters.  The  pit  shown  however,  is  not 
screened;  and  being  built  entirely  aboveground 


FIG.  41. — Aboveground  Concrete  Manure  Pit. 

cannot  be  loaded  from  so  easily  as  if  arranged 
for  backing  in  a  wagon. 

REPAIRING   CRACKS    IN    TANKS,   CISTERNS, 

ETC. 

If  properly  constructed,  stock  watering  troughs, 
tanks,  cisterns  and  similar  receptacles  will  not 
crack.  Sometimes,  as  a  result  of  neglecting  a 
requirement  of  construction,  cracks  appear  in  the 


118    CONCRETE  OJSTTHE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

concrete.  If  these  are  simply  due  to  omitting 
proper  precautions  when  joining  one  day's  work 
to  the  next,  they  can  often  be  satisfactorily  re- 
paired to  prevent  leakage  by  the  following 
method : 

The  cracks  should  be  cut  out  so  as  to  form  a 
V-shaped  groove,  say  li  inches  deep  and  about 
an  inch  wide  at  the  surface.  After  being  thor- 
oughly cleansed  out  by  brushing  and  washing, 
then  allowing  to  dry,  this  groove  may  be  calked 
with  oakum  soaked  in  far  so  that  about  one-half 
of  the  depth  of  the  groove  is  thus  filled.  Then 
the  remainder  should  be  filled  with  a  plastic  mix- 
ture consisting  of  pine  tar  and  Portland  cement 
combined  in  proportions  so  as  to  make  a  paste  as 
stiff  as  can  be  conveniently  plastered  into  the 
groove.  This  mixture  may  harden  slightly  while 
being  used  but  can  be  kept  soft  enough  to  work 
with  by  subjecting  it  to  moderate  heat  in  the  metal 
receptacle  in  which  mixed. 

Where  cracks  are  due  to  insufficient  reinforc- 
ing or  to  lack  of  reinforcing,  the  repair  method 
suggested  will  be  of  little  or  no  avail.  The  only 
thing  that  can  be  done  with  the  tank  is  to  use  it 
as  an  inner  or  outer  form  and  deposit  a  new 
shell  of  concrete  inside  or  outside  of  the  old 
structure.  This  may  be  from  2  to  4  or  more 
inches  thick,  depending  upon  a  number  of  con- 
ditions ;  and  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  crack- 
ing this  shell  should  be  properly  reinforced. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    119 

REMEDYING  A  POROUS  SURFACE  BY 
PLASTERING 

If  as  a  result  of  improper  mixtures  or  im- 
proper handling,  there  are  porous  spots  in  the  con- 
struction through  which  contents  leak,  the  whole 
interior  of  the  tank  may  be  given  a  cement  plas- 
ter coat  that,  if  properly  applied,  may  remedy 
the  trouble.  Preparatory  to  applying  this  plaster 
coat,  the  surface  to  be  treated  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  by  scrubbing  with  a  good  stiff 
brush  and  water,  or  better  still,  wash  the  surface 
with  a  solution  of  1  part  of  commercial  muriatic 
acid  to  3  or  4  parts  of  water,  allowing  this  to  re- 
main for  a  few  moments  and  then  thoroughly  rinse 
off  the  surface  with  clean  water.  The  acid  treat- 
ment removes  the  cement  coating  from  the  parti- 
cles of  sand  and  gravel,  thus  exposing  clean  sur- 
faces to  which  the  cement  plaster  will  more  readily 
bond  or  adhere. 

APPLYING  THE  PLASTER  COAT 

Immediately  before  applying  the  plaster,  the 
cleansed  surface  should  be  painted  with  a  paint 
of  cement  and  water  mixed  to  the  consistency  of 
cream.  This  can  be  applied  with  an  ordinary 
whitewash  brush,  but  should  not  be  applied  very 
far  in  advance  of  the  plastering,  otherwise  it 
will  have  commenced  to  harden  and  the  plaster 
will  not  unite  with  it. 


120  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

Plastering  rnortar  should  be  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  part  cement  to  li  or  not  more  than 
2  parts  of  sand.  No  more  mortar  should  be  mixed 
than  can  be  used  within  thirty  minutes  as  once  it 
has  commenced  to  harden  it  will  be  worthless. 
Mortar  can  be  applied  with  a  steel  trowel  and  the 
surface  should  be  subsequently  worked  thoroughly 
as  soon  as  possible  with  a  wood  float  to  make  a 
dense  impervious  coating.  Final  smoothing  may 
be  done  with  a  steel  trowel,  but  one  should  be  very 
careful  not  to  overtrowel,  as  this  will  impair  the 
quality  of  "the  coating  by  drawing  a  film  of  cement 
to  the  surface  with  water,  thus  robbing  the  mor- 
tar coat  of  uniform  distribution  of  cement 
throughout.  After  having  finished  plastering  the 
surface  must  be  protected  from  too  rapid  drying 
out  by  being  kept  wet  for  several  days  so  that  the 
plaster  coating  will  thoroughly  and  uniformly 
harden.  The  foregoing  methods  apply  also  in 
practically  all  cases  where  cement  mortar  is  to 
be  used  as  plastering  on  an  old  surface. 

APPLYING  WATERPROOFING  CHEMICALS 

Sometimes  the  porous  nature  of  concrete  in 
tanks  and  cisterns  due  to  improper  protection 
while  hardening,  can  be  remedied  by  applying 
a  coating  of  what  is  called  "waterglass";  this 
is  chemically  known  as  sodium  silicate.  The 
chemical  is  dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of 
1  part  silicate  to  3  or  4  parts  water,  depending 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  121 

upon  the  porosity  of  the  concrete  to  be  treated. 
Two  or  three  coats  of  this  solution  applied  at 
intervals  of  24  hours  may  be  necessary  to  fill  up 
the  pores.  Effectiveness  of  this  method  depends 
upon  a  chemical  combination  between  the  silicate 
and  the  alkalies  present  in  the  concrete,  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  an  insoluble  compound;  that 
is,  one  that  water  will  not  dissolve. 

CONCRETE  HOTBEDS 

An  admirable  use  for  concrete  is  in  construct- 
ing hotbeds  (see  Figs.  42  and  43).  In  the  past 
farmers  and  vegetable  growers  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  building  these  structures  of  wood,  which 
being  always  in  contact  with  the  soil  is  subjected 
to  alternate  dry  and  moist  conditions  that  con- 
tribute most  to  rapid  rot.  Concrete  solves  the 
problem  of  permanence,  and  hotbed  construction 
represents  about  as  easy  an  application  of  con- 
crete as  can  be  made. 

A  1  :  2i :  4  mixture  of  quaky  consistency  will  be 
suitable.  Forms  will  be  necessary  only  for  that 
portion  of  the  walls  aboveground  provided  the 
earth  trench  is  in  firm  soil  so  that  the  sides  do 
not  cave.  As  soon  as  concrete  has  been  placed 
to  ground  level  the  forms  for  the  structure  above- 
ground  must  at  once  be  set  in  position  and  con- 
creting continued  so  that  there  will  be  a  perfect 
bond  formed  between  the  wall  belowground  and 
that  aboveground. 


122  CORCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


Strap  •* 

Hinge 


S?.:;-V.- 
W-'.'a:- 

;£••>'.'••• 


ifp;.^//!;^ 

^>«      */     "        •  J,      i  S  Q'l  i  '  '      •  ',/  -T^.y*.  •  •   ^ 


./M,,M^^,/^,^,,i^'. :,.,,,;    v,  a:/.;;?;-' '• ' 

f"-o.;:  "u- "--^50-(C:^'^ri=s1-iri.:;S^r,  ;>.-<j-'-»  ••'•..-  • 


FIG.  42. — Sectional  View  of  Concrete  Hotbed. 


l'6he a/thing 

Board  Forms 


2*4 


FIG.  42a. — Hotbed  Form  Construction  for  the  Walls  Aboveground. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  123 

If  the  bed  is  not  larger  than  5  or  6  feet  wide 
and  10  or  12  feet  long,  no  reinforcing  will  be 


FIG.  43.— A  Finished  Concrete  Hotbed. 

needed  except  one  f-inch  rod  bent  at  right 
angles  in  each  corner  at  the  lower  (front)  side 
of  the  bed  and  two  rods  in  each  corner  bent 


124  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

similarly  in  the  back  corners  of  the  bed.  These 
rods  should  lie  along  the  center  line  of  the  wall, 
two  feet  around  corners.  Four-foot  rods  are 
therefore  necessary.  This  will  prevent  possible 
cracking  at  corners  due  to  temperature  changes. 

Whenever  hotbeds  are  to  be  built  longer  than  25 
feet,  it  is  advisable  either  to  provide  an  expan- 
sion joint  in  the  walls  to  prevent  cracking  due 
to  temperature  changes  or  to  reinforce  the  wall 
throughout  its  entire  length  so  as  to  counteract 
the  strains  of  expansion. 

When  laying  up  the  back  walls  of  hotbeds,  ar- 
rangement should  be  made  to  embed  carriage 
bolts  or  some  kind  of  fittings  in  the  concrete  so 
that  the  sash  hinges  may  be  readily  attached. 
Hotbeds  and  cold  frames  are  alike  as  regards 
concrete  construction,  the  difference  simply  be- 
ing in  the  manner  in  which  the  seed  bed  is  pre- 
pared and  whether  the  resulting  structure  is 
covered  with  glazed  sash  or  with  cheese  cloth. 
It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  embed  rods  in  the 
walls  so  that  wires  can  be  attached  to  these  and 
cheese  cloth  coverings  hung  over  the  bed  to  coun- 
teract the  effect  of  strong  sunlight  which  under 
certain  conditions  is  often  injurious  to  tender 
plants  under  glass. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP     125 

ROOFS  FOR  SMALL  BUILDINGS 

The  subject  of  concrete  roofs  is  a  broad  one  and 
cannot  be  covered  thoroughly  in  the  limited  space 
of  this  booklet.  Flat  slab  roofs  are  the  simplest 
type  to  construct.  Inasmuch  as  slab  thickness 
and  the  amount  and  spacing  of  reinforcing  must 
vary  in  accordance  with  the  span  to  be  covered, 
the  best  method  of  suggesting  requirements 
will  be  by  presenting  a  number  of  tables. 

Table  I  shows  the  thickness  of  roof  slabs  in 
inches  for  various  spans  between  walls. 

Table  II  shows  the  recommended  spacing  of  re- 
inforcing rods  in  inches  for  the  spans  listed. 

Table  III  shows  quantities  of  cement,  sand  and 
stone  for  various  slabs. 


TABLE  I 
THICKNESS  OF  ROOF  SLABS  IN  INCHES 


Width  in  Feet 
Between  Center 
Lines  of  Walls. 

LENGTH   OF   ROOF  IN   FFFT  BETWEEN  CENTER  LINES  OF 
WALLS. 

4  Ft. 

6  Ft. 

8  Ft. 

10  Ft. 

12  Ft./ 

14  Ft. 

16  Ft. 

4ft. 

2  in. 

2    in. 

2ijn. 

2|  in. 

2|  in, 

2|  in. 

2£  in. 

6ft. 

2£  in. 

2£  in. 

2*  in. 

3    in. 

3    in. 

3    in. 

8ft. 

3    in. 

3|  in. 

3|  in. 

3£  in. 

4    in. 

10ft. 

3£in. 

4    in. 

4|  in. 

4£  in. 

12ft. 
14ft. 
16  ft. 

4    in. 

4£  in. 
5    in. 

5  in. 
5^  in. 
6  in. 

126  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


TABLE  II 
CEMENT,  SAND  AND  STONE 

WIDTH  OF  SLAB  IN  FEET  (BETWEEN  EAVES) 


4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

Sacks 

Length 

4 

0.7 

2.0 

of 

of 

6 

1.0 

Cement 

Roof 

8 

1.7 

2.6 

4.2 

(1  sack 

in 

= 

10 

2.2 

3.3 

6.1 

7.6 

=  lcu.ft.) 

feet 

12 

2:6 

4.7 

7.3 

10.4 

12.5 

between 

14 

3.0 

5.5 

8.5 

13.7 

16.4 

21.2 

eaves 

10 

3.5 

6.2 

10.1 

14.4 

20.8 

26.7 

33.3 

Cu.ft. 

Length 

4 

1.4 

of 

of 

6 

2.1 

3.9 

Sand 

Roof 

8 

3.4 

5.2 

8.3 

in 

= 

10 

4.3 

6.5 

12.1 

15.2 

feet 

12 

5.2 

9.4 

14.6 

20.8 

25.0 

between 

14 

6.1 

10.9 

17.0 

27.3 

32.8 

42.5 

eaves 

16 

6.9 

12.5 

20.2 

28.8 

41.6 

53.4 

66.6 

Cu.ft. 

Length 

4 

2.1 

of 

of 

6 

3.1 

5.9 

Stone 

Roof 

8 

5.1 

7.8 

12.5 

in 

= 

10 

6.5 

9.8 

18.2 

22.7 

feet 

12 

7.8 

14.0 

21.8 

31.2 

37.4 

between 

14 

9.1 

16.4 

25.5 

41.0 

49.1 

63.7 

eaves 

16 

10.4 

18.7 

30.3 

43.2 

62.4 

80.1 

99.8 

CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  127 


TABLE  III 
SPACING  OF  REINFORCING  RODS  IN  INCHES 


Width  in 
Feet 

LENGTH  OF  ROOF  IN  FEET  BETWEEN  CENTER  LINES  OF  WALLS 

between 

Center 

Lines 
of  Walls. 

4  Ft. 

6  Ft. 

8  Ft. 

10  Ft. 

12  Ft. 

14  Ft. 

16  Ft. 

Steel. 
Size 

4  Ft. 

12  in. 

91  in. 

8    in. 

8     in. 

8    in. 

8    in. 

8     in. 

12  in. 

24     in. 

30     in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

11  in. 

(round 

6  ft. 

6    in. 

4f  in. 

4    in. 

4  in. 

4    in. 

4     in. 

rods 

6    in. 

12     in. 

36    in. 

36  in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

8  ft. 

11     in. 

9£  in. 

9     in. 

71  in. 

71  in. 

\ 

!1     in. 

22    in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

36    in. 

10ft. 

81  in. 

71  in. 

7    in. 

6J  in. 

81  in. 

16    in. 

27     in. 

36    in. 

1  in. 

12ft. 

6|  in. 

51  in. 

51  in. 

(  round 

6£  in. 

12    in. 

16    in. 

rods 

Hft. 

NOTE.  —  Upper  figures 

51  in. 

4£  in. 

are   for     cross     rein- 

5J in. 

SI  in. 

forcement;     lower 

16  ft. 

figures  for  long    re- 

4   in. 

inforcement. 

4    in. 

i 

Forms  for  concrete  roofs  should  be  very  care- 
fully made  so  that  the  concrete  will  have  rigid 
support  until  it  has  hardened  sufficiently  not  only 
to  support  its  own  weight  but  the  weight  due  to 
wind,  snow  and  driving  rain.  They  must  be  stout 
enough  absolutely  to  prevent  the  least  sagging 
under  the  load  of  concrete. 

Of  course  roofs  must  be  watertight.  This  sug- 
gests a  1:2:3  mixture.  It  is  very  essential  that 
roof  reinforcing  be  properly  placed  so  that  the 


128  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

full  effect  of  the  steel  in  tension  will  be  secured. 
Reinforcing  may  be  blocked  up  from  the  forms  in 
proper  place  by  using  small  concrete  cubes  pre- 
viously made  or  by  using  small  blocks  of  wood. 
The  latter  should  be  withdrawn  as  fast  as  con- 
creting proceeds. 

To  be  on  the  safe  side,  roof  forms  should  be 
left  in  place  a  little  longer  than  may  seem  ab- 
solutely necessary.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
two  weeks  is  not  too  long.  In  cold  weather  double 
this  time,  or  more,  may  be  necessary. 

As  concrete  roofs  expose  a  large  area  to  sun 
and  air,  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  concrete 
be  covered  with  some  protective  covering  to  pre- 
vent too  rapid  drying  out.  This  may  be  canvas 
or  burlap,  kept  wet,  or  a  layer  of  2  inches  of 
moist  sand,  kept  moist  by  frequent  sprinkling 
daily  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  After  this  the 
covering  may  be  removed  and  several  wettings 
per  day  be  given  by  means  of  a  hose  or  otherwise 
,and  the  concrete  allowed  to  progress  in  harden- 
ing under  natural  conditions.  Where  the  area 
to  be  covered  does  not  permit  finishing  the  work 
in  one  continuous  operation,  provision  must  be 
made  for  a  construction  joint  in  the  work.  This 
can  afterward  be  filled  with  hot  tar  or  asphalt  to 
seal  it  against  leakage. 


CONCRETE  ON  THE 'FARM  AND  SHOP    129 

PAVEMENTS,   WALKS,   STEPS   AND   FLOORS 

Pavements,  walks,  and  floors  all  belong  to  the 
same  class  of  construction.  Steps  are  included 
in  this  section  simply  because  they  often  serve  to 
provide  a  means  of  entering  a  building  from  a 
walk,  where  the  building  is  above  or  below  the 
walk  level.  Barnyard  pavements  and  feeding 
floors  (see  Figs.  44  and  45)  are  true  time  savers 


Finished  Floor 


^^-  Curb 
Place 


FIG.  44. — Concrete  Feeding  Floor  or  Barnyard  Pavement. 

and  money  makers.  They  do  away  with  barn- 
yard  and  feeding  lot  mudholes  and  provide  com- 
fort and  cleanliness  for  the  stock,  which  means 
greater  sanitation.  They  make  doubly  sure  that 
all  feed  will  be  eaten;  none  can  be  tramped  into 
the  mud  and  lost. 

The  first  essential  to  floor,  pavement  or  walk 
(see  Fig.  46)  construction  is  that  the  foundation 
be  firm  and  well  drained.  All  turf  or  vegetation 
should  be  removed  from  the  site  where  the  con- 
crete is  to  be  laid  and  any  soft  spots  should  be 
dug  out  and  refilled  with  clean  material,  well 


130  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

tamped.  The  whole  foundation  area  should  be 
compacted  by  rolling  or  ramming  to  uniform 
solidity.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to 
make  a  gravel  or  cinder  fill  or  subbase  (Fig.  46) 
upon  which  to  lay  the  concrete.  This,  however, 
should  not  be  done  unless  absolutely  necessary,  as 


FIG.  45. — Concrete  Hog  Feeding  Floor,  without  Curb. 

in  a  location  where  the  soil  does  not  drain  readily 
and  water  would  be  likely  to  remain  under  the 
pavement  in  freezing  weather.  If  this  happened 
the  expansion  resulting  from  freezing  would  cause 
the  pavement  to  heave  and  possibly  would  crack 
some  of  the  slabs. 
Wherever  a  cinder  or  gravel  subbase  is  pro- 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  131 

vided,  arrangement  should  be  made  to  connect 
short  lengths  of  tile  to  this  subbase  to  insure 
drainage  of  water  from  beneath  the  floor  or  pave- 
ment. 

FORMS    FOR   WALKS   AND    FLOORS 

Forms  for  walks  (Fig.  46)  should  be  set  up  so 
that  the  walk  will  have  either  a  slope  of  i  inch 


t"Top  Course 

4"Concrefe 
Base 


if 

'<" 


X,  Well  compacted 
'  soil  or  cinder  or 
gravel  sub-base 


FIG.  46. — Detail  of  Concrete  Sidewalk  Construction,  Two-course 

Work. 

to  the  foot  in  one  direction  to  make  surface  water 
drain  from  it  readily,  or  else  the  forms  may  be 
set  up  to  the  same  level  and  a  slightly  curved 
template  or  strikeboard  be  used  to  strike  off  the 
surface,  thus  giving  it  a  slight  crown  which  will 
also  accomplish  quick  drainage.  This  refers  par- 
ticularly to  w alks ;  barnyard  pavements  and  feed- 


132  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

ing  floors  (Figs.  44  and  45)  should  be  laid  with  a 
uniform  grade  or  slope  in  one  direction,  toward 
a  gutter  formed  in  the  concrete  at  the  low  side, 
which  in  turn  should  be  connected  to  a  tile  line 
leading  to  a  manure  pit  so  that  all  of  the  liquid 
droppings  on  the  floor  can  be  conserved,  as  these 
represent  money. 

SIZE  OF  SLABS 

Walk  and  pavement  slabs  should  not  be  greater 
than  6  feet  in  any  one  dimension  and  forms  should 
be  placed  so  that  alternate  slabs  may  be  concreted 
first,  then  after  these  have  hardened  the  forms 
should  be  removed  and  concrete  for  the  remain- 
ing slabs  placed.  This  will  guarantee  perfect 
joints  of  separation  between  adjacent  slabs,  which 
is  quite  necessary  to  prevent  destruction  of  the 
pavement  in  case  of  unequal  settlement  or  up- 
heaval as  a  result  of  faulty  foundation  or  to 
freezing. 

MIXTURES  FOR  FLOORS,  PAVEMENTS,  ETC. 

Barnyard  pavements  and  feeding  floors  are  now 
almost  universally  of  one-course  construction. 
This  means  a  mixture  of  uniform  richness 
throughout ;  a  1:2:3  mixture  is  preferable,  al- 
though a  1:2:4  mixture  is  sometimes  used.  In 
this  class  of  work  also  concrete  should  be  of 
quaky  consistency.  If  it  is  desired  to  have  a 
smooth  finish  to  walks,  then  it  is  common  to  use 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  133 

a  leaner  mixture,  such  as  1:3:5  for  the  founda- 
tion and  apply  a  1  or  li-inch  wearing  course  of 
a  1 :  2  sand-cement  mortar.  The  top  or  wearing 
course  of  two-course  construction  should  be  placed 
immediately  after  the  base  (before  the  base  has 
commenced  to  harden)  so  that  there  will  be  a 
perfect  bond  or  union  between  the  two  courses. 

FINISHING  WALKS  AND  FLOORS 

The  consistency  of  the  top  course  should  be 
rather  stiff  so  that  when  attempting  to  dump  the 
mortar  from  a  wheelbarrow  it  will  have  to  be 
scraped  out.  If  mixed  to  such  stiffness  the  top 
can  be  troweled  to  the  desired  finish  a  few  min- 
utes after  striking  off.  Then  only  one  troweling 
will  be  necessary  and  the  resulting  surface  will 
be  more  durable  and  wear-proof  than  if  the  top 
course  is  mixed  wetter,  thus  making  it  necessary 
to  trowel  several  times  at  intervals  to  secure  the 
desired  finish.  Repeated  trowelings  break  up  the 
chemical  action  taking  place  between  the  cement 
and  water  during  the  process  of  hardening  and 
considerably  affect  the  wearing  qualities  of  the 
surface. 

PROTECTION  OF  WALKS,  FLOORS  AND 
PAVEMENTS 

Just  as  soon  as  concrete  in  feeding  floor,  walk 
or  pavement  construction  has  hardened  suf- 
ficiently to  permit  throwing  upon  it  a  protective 


134  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 


FIG.  47. — Forms  for  Concrete  Curb  Construction, 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  135 

layer  of  moist  sand  or  earth  this  should  be  ap- 
plied to  protect  the  concrete  so  it  may  acquire 
strength  slowly  under  favorable  conditions.  This 
covering  should  be  kept  wet  by  frequent  sprinkling 
for  a  week  or  ten  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the 
walk,  floor  or  pavement  can  be  put  to  its  intended 
use. 


CURB  FOR  FEEDING  FLOORS 

Feeding  floors  should  be  built  with  a  curb  all 
around  them  extending  18  or  20  inches  below 
ground  level  and  3  or  4  inches  above  the  floor 
level.  Forms  for  curbs  are  shown  in  Fig.  47. 
This  prevents  the  animals  from  pushing  feed  off 
the  floor,  thereby  wasting  it;  while  the  extension 
of  curb  below  ground  level  will  keep  them  from 
rooting  underneath  the  floor. 

SANITATION  SECURED 

Feeding  floors  and  barnyard  pavements,  next 
to  concrete  watering  troughs,  are  the  most  ef- 
fective of  barnyard  appointments  toward  secur- 
ing sanitation.  They  are  largely  cleaned  by 
sunlight  and  rain,  but  they  must,  of  course,  oc- 
casionally be  washed  off  with  broom  and  hose  to 
keep  them  in  sanitary  condition.  Barnyard  pave- 
ments and  feeding  floors  should  never  be  finished 
with  a  steel  trowel  but  with  a  wood  float,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  a  surface  that  will  not  be  slip- 


136  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

pery.  The  wood-float  surface  will  be  even,  but 
gritty  enough  in  texture  to  make  a  safe  foothold 
for  the  animals. 

INDOOR  FLOORS 

Floors  inside  buildings  are  laid  in  the  same 
manner  as  feeding  floors  or  barnyard  pavements, 
with  the  exception  that  slabs  may  be  larger,  even 
up  to  10  feet  square,  as  temperature  changes 
under  cover  are  not  so  great  as  those  out  of  doors, 
therefore  it  is  less  likely  that  the  slabs  will  crack 
from  expansion. 

THICKNESS  OF  SLABS 

Walks,  pavements  and  floors  should  not  be  less 
than  5  inches  thick  and  preferably  6  inches  thick 
if  subjected  to  heavy  usage  such  as  would  prevail 
in  horse  barns  where  subjected  to  the  impact  of 
heavy  horses  shod  with  steel  shoes.  For  or- 
dinary walks,  feeding  floors  and  barnyard  pave- 
ments, 5  inches  will  be  sufficient. 

STEPS 

Most  woods  in  contact  with  soil,  especially 
when  lying  upon  rather  than  buried  in  it,  rot 
rapidly.  This  is  especially  true  of  woods  that  are 
commonly  used  for  porch  or  step  construction. 
Probably  no  home  owner  has  escaped  the  neces- 
sity of  frequently  replacing  the  steps  at  the  front 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  137 

or  back  of  the  house.  When  wood  is  used  for 
such  a  purpose  it  should  be  easy  to  see  that  one's 
labors  are  soon  lost. 

Constructing  for  permanence  by  using  concrete 
involves  little  if  any  greater  expense  than  re- 
quired to  build  impermanently  of  wood.  Further- 
more, construction  such  as  required  either  for 
front  or  back  porches  is  relatively  simple.  Forms 
are  of  the  simplest.  Take  the  back  steps  by  way  of 


r  , „, 

Stakes  2x4"     Form  cut  away  / 

to  show  base  or  -foundation 


FIG.  48. — Forms  for  Plain  Concrete  Steps  - 

illustration.    Figs.  48  and  49  show  the  simplicity 
of  forms  required  and  the  finished  porch  steps. 

Before  commencing  the  work,  the  ground  should 
be  leveled  and  any  soft  spots  or  vegetation  such 
as  sod,  dug  out  and  removed.  Then  the  area 
where  the  steps  are  to  be  placed  should  be  filled 
in  with  clean,  well-compacted  gravel.  Arrange- 
ments should  be  made  to  mix  and  place  the  con- 
crete so  that  construction  can  be  continuous  from 
the  time  started  until  finished.  A  small  job  like 


138  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

the  one  illustrated  will  not  require  more  than  a 
few  hours  of  work,  so  there  need  be  no  construc- 
tion seams  in  the  work. 

Concrete  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  1 :  24 : 4 
will  be  well  suited  to  this  work,  and  pebbles 
larger  than  1  inch,  also  field. stones,  may  be  used 


FIG.  49. — Finished  Concrete  Steps. 

on  the  interior  of  the  mass,  but  it  will  consider- 
ably reduce  the  labor  of  finishing  the  surface  when 
spading  if  no  pebbles  or  broken  stone  larger  than 
1  inch  is  used  in  the  concrete  placed  against 
forms.  Use  enough  water  to  form  a  concrete  of 
quaky  consistency  and  mix  no  more  concrete  at 
one  time  than  can  be  placed  within  30  minutes 
after  mixing.  Do  not  retemper,  that  is,  add 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP    139 


water  and  attempt  to  remix  a  batch  of  concrete 
that  has  commenced  to  harden. 

In  placing  concrete  use  a  spade  or  similar  tool 
(Fig.  50)  to  work  up  and  down  against  the  inner 
form  face,  so  as  to  remove  air  bubbles  and  force 
back  the  coarse  gravel  from  the  form  and  permit 


FIG.  50. — Method  of  Spading  Concrete  Next  to  Form  Face. 

the  sand-cement  mortar  to  come  forward  so  that 
a  smooth  surface  which  will  require  little  or  no 
finishing  after  the  forms  are  removed,  will  be 
secured.  Under  favorable  summer  weather  con- 
ditions forms  can  be  removed  within  24  hours 
from  such  construction,  so  that  if  there  are  stone 
pockets  or  similar  imperfections  appearing  on 


140  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

the  face  of  the  exposed  work,  these  can  be  readily 
filled  with  a  1 :  2  cement-sand  mortar.  Then  the 
whole  surface  is  floated,  that  is,  wet  down  and 
rubbed  with  a  brick,  wood  float  or  similar  finish- 
ing tool  while  it  is  wet. 

Nothing  has  so  far  been  said  about  the  surface 
finish  of  the  tread  of  the  steps  and  top  of  the 
porch  area.  If  forms  are  filled  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  top  with  a  1 :  2 :  4  mixture,  a  top,  or  wearing 
coat,  mixed  1 :  2  or  not  leaner  than  1 :  2J  provided 
the  sand  is  well  graded,  can  be  applied  before  the 
mass  of  concrete  has  commenced  to  harden.  A 
little  1 :  2  mortar  can  be  spread  around  on  the  sur- 
face, then  worked  with  a  wood  float.  This  will 
give  an  even  and  non-slippery  finish.  Use  the 
edger  around  the  forms  just  at  final  finishing. 

Some  persons  desire  the  smoothness  obtained 
by  using  a  steel  trowel  for  final  finishing. 

After  the  forms  have  been  removed,  the  steps 
should  be  protected  by  some  kind  of  a  cohering 
that  will  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation  of  moist- 
ure so  that  the  concrete  can  properly  harden.  Old 
burlap  sacks  kept  wet  for  a  week,  or  a  covering 
of  moist  earth  sprinkled  down  frequently  will  ac- 
complish the  purpose.  The  steps  may  be  used 
after  the  time  mentioned. 

Such  work  can  be  done  during  cold  weather 
provided  there  is  no  frost  in  the  ground ;  but  cer- 
tain precautions  must  be  taken,  such  as  heating 
the  sand  and  gravel  and  mixing  water  and  pro- 
tecting the  concrete  just  as  soon  as  it  has  been 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  141 

placed,  so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  freez- 
ing for  at  least  48  hours.  The  forms  can  be 
covered  with  canvas,  burlap  or  building  paper, 
and  on  top  of  this  there  may  be  piled  6  or  8 
inches  of  hay,  straw  or  manure,  which  will  protect 
the  work  sufficiently  so  that  after  48  hours  no 
damage  from  freezing  need  be  feared.  Concrete 
hardens  more  slowly  in  cold  weather  than  in 
warm  weather,  and  it  would  be  well  not  to  use 
the  steps  until  two  weeks  or  more  after  doing  the 
concreting. 

CONCLUSION 

Concrete  falls  in  for  a  great  many  uses  on  the 
farm  that  could  not  be  enumerated  in  the  limited 
space  of  this  book.  It  forms  very  suitable  mate- 
rial for  curbing  springs  of  water,  that  is,  building 
a  protective  wall  around  them  so  that  surface 
water  may  be  prevented  from  polluting  them. 
This  construction  falls  within  the  same  require- 
ments as  that  described  for  tanks  and  cisterns. 
The  same  applies  to  concrete  used  for  well  ca- 
sings or  curbs.  If  the  well  is  a  circular  one,  of 
course  a  circular  form  will  be  required  on  the 
inside.  After  this  has  been  placed  the  earth  may 
be  excavated  around  the  outside  of  this  form  and 
it  will  be  possible,  if  the  earth  is  firm,  to  deposit 
concrete  without  any  outside  form,  otherwise 
outside  forms  will  be  necessary. 

The  curb  may  be  reinforced  with  i-inch  round 
rods  bent  to  the  desired  curve  or  with  woven  wire 


142  CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP 

fabric  such  as  is  used  for  wire  fencing.  If  fabric 
is  used  it  serves  for  both  vertical  and  horizontal 
reinforcing.  If  rods  are  used,  they  must  be  placed 
both  vertically  and  horizontally  to  accomplish  the 
desired  results.  Horizontal  rods  should  be  spaced 
6  inches  center  to  center  and  vertical  ones  from 


FIG.  51.— A  Concrete  Well  Platform. 

18  inches  to  2  feet  apart  around  the  circumference 
of  the  well.  Vertical  and  horizontal  rods  should 
be  tied  together  where  they  intersect  so  as  to  hold 
them  in  correct  position  while  concrete  is  being 
placed.  Reinforcing  can  be  assembled  above- 
ground,  then  set  in  place.  If  the  curb  is  6  inches 
thick,  which  will  be  sufficient,  the  reinforcing 


CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP  143 

should  be  midway  between  the  inner  and  outer 
surfaces  of  the  concrete. 

Excavation  should  be  made  4  or  5  feet  deep  so 
that  the  curb  will  extend  at  least  that  depth  below 
ground  level.  This  will  largely  prevent  seepage 
of  surface  water  into  the  well.  After  this  curb 
has  been  laid  and  has  properly  hardened  a  con- 
crete slab  for  a  well  platform  (Fig.  51)  should  be 
constructed.  This  should  be  not  less  than  4  inches 
thick  and  should  be  reinforced  with  i-inch  rods 
placed  6  inches  center  to  center  in  both  directions 
1  inch  from  the  slab  bottom,  suitable  opening 
being  provided  in  the  slab  to  permit  the  passage 
of  pump  pipe. 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Aggregates  defined  ...................................  12 

,  Hard,  durable  ones  necessary  ................  16 

,  Importance  of  clean  ............  .  ...........  12 

/Washing  ..................................  16 

Beams,  Mixture  for  ...................................  33 

1  '     ,  Reinforcing  of  .................................  67 

Block,  Simple  Column  ................................  45 

Box,  Measuring  ..................  ,  ...................  50 

Cement,  How  to  Store  ................................  11 

'  '      ,  Lumps  in  ....................................  11 

'  '      ,  Portland,  defined  .............................  10 

"      ,  Size  of  sack  ..................................  12 

"      ,  Testing  .....................................  11 

Cistern  ..............................................  107 

'  '      ,  Building  cover  slab  ............................  Ill 

'  '      ,  Form  removal  ................................  113 

'  '      ,  Repairing  cracks  ..............................  117 

'  '      ,  Water  connections  .................  ...........  112 

Column,  Simple  block  for  .........  .....................  46 

Conclusion  ..........................................  141 

Concrete,  Amount  of  water  required  ....................  26 

11       ,  "Curing"  of  ................................  29 

,  defined  .....................................  10 

,  Examples  of  figuring  quantities  ................  35 

c  '       ,  Hardening  of  ...............................  29 

'  *       ,  Measuring  materials  for  ......................  23 

"       ,  Mixer  for  ...................................  19 

"       ,  Mixing  .........................  ............  18 

"       ,  Mixing  by  hand  .............................  23 

,  Placing  ..................................  27,  52 

"       ,  Principles  of  proportioning  ....................  15 

'  '       ,  Protection  after  placing  ......................  29 

145 


" 


146  INDEX 

PAGE 

Concrete,  Retempering 59 

,  Rubble 96 

"       ,  Safe  loading  for 64 

"       ,  Water  for 18 

' '       ,  Watertight,  how  secured 51 

Concreting,  Resuming  work  from  day  before 60 

' '         ,  Stopping  for  the  d?v 60 

' '           tools 49 

Curb,  Feeding  floor 135 

11    ,  Well 142 

Feeding  floors 129 

Fence,  Panel 75 

' '     ,  Post  or  rail 74 

Fences 73 

Floor,  feeding,  Curb  for 135 

"      ,  Mixture  for 33 

' '    ,  Mixture  for  base  of  two-course 34 

' '    ,  Wearing  course  for  two-course 34 

1 '    ,  Feeding 129 

"    ,  Finishing 133 

"    ,  General 129 

' '    ,  Protection  of : 133 

' '    ,  reinforced,  Mixture  for 34 

"    ,  Size  of  slabs 132 

Footing,  Mixture  for 34 

' '      ,  Width  and  thickness  of 58 

Form,  Engine  foundation 61 

' '    ,  Foundation 62 

Forms,  Care  in  setting  up 42 

1 '     ,  Kind  of  lumber  to  use 39 

' '     ,  Oiling  or  wetting 41 

"     ,  Studs  for,  Thickness  of 41 

' '     ,  System 44 

' '     ,  Thickness  of  lumber 41 

' '     ,  Time  to  leave  in  place 43 

' '     ,  Wire  ties  and  bolts  for 43 

Form,  Wall,  and  column 63 

Foundation,  Depth  for 57 

' '         ,  Laying  out,  Method 56 


0 

INDEX  147 


Foundations,  Bearing  power  of  soils .• 64 

,  Concrete  for 55 

,  Engine,  Mixture  for 33 

' '          ,  ordinary,  Mixture  for 34 

Gravel,  Bank-run,  not  suitable 13 

' '     Defined 12 

"     ,  Screening 13 

"     ,  Washing 16 

' '     ,  Washing,  Device  for 17 

Hardening,  Time  required 30 

Hog  Wallow 113 

"         ' '      ;  Water  supply  for .  .  .  . 115 

Hotbed 121 

Introductory 5 

Manure  Pit 115 

Mixer,  Home-made 19 

Mixing  Concrete 18 

Mixtures,  Recommended 33 

Mortar,  Mixtures  for  various  uses 34 

Pavements 129 

' '         ,  Finishing 133 

"         ,  Protection 133 

Plastering 119 

Platform  mixing 50 

Posts,  Braces  for 95 

' '    ,  Clothesline 99 

"    ,  Corner 92 

"    ,  Cost  of 84 

' '    ,  Fastening  line  wires 91 

' '    ,  Forms  for  gate 95 

' '    ,  Gate 95 

"    ,  Hardening 91 

' '    ,  Mixtures  for 33,  83 

"    ,  Molds  for 82 


148  INDEX 

PAGE 

Posts,  Principles  of  reinforcing 70 

' '    ,  Reinforcing  requirements 84 

"    ,  Rubble  gate 96 

1 '    ,  Sections  of 90 

' '    ,  Spacers  for  reinforcing  metal 89 

' '    ,  Various  types 81 

' '    ,  Winter  manufacture  of 31 

Reinforcing,  Materials  to  use 70 

' '         ,  Position  of  in  beams 69,  71 

"         ,        "       "  "  tanks  and  cisterns Ill 

' '         ,  Principles  described 66 

,  Rust  or  scale  on 72 

Roofs,  Mixtures  for 33 

"     ,  Tables  for 125,  126,  127 

Sand,  Defined 12 

"    ,  Washing 16 

' '    ,  Washing  device  for 17 

Screen,  Home-made 49 

Silo,  Mixture  for  walls 34 

Slabs,  Floor,  pavement,  etc.,  Thickness  of 136 

Soils,  Bearing  power  of 64 

Spading , 139 

Steps 129,  137,  138 

System,  Simple  form 44 

Table.     Fence  post  reinforcing  and  quantities 87 

Table  of  mixtures  and  quantities 35,  36 

Tanks 101 

' '      and  troughs,  reinf orcing 103 

"     ,  Mixtures  for 33 

' '     ,  Repairing  cracks 117 

Tools,  Concreting 49 

Trough,  Design  for  stock  watering 104 

Troughs 103 

' '       and  tanks,  reinforcing 103 

"      ,  Mixture  for 33 

' '      ,  Repairing  cracks 117 

"      ,  Water-tightness,  how  secured 106 


INDEX  149 

PAGE 

Walk,  Mixture  for  base  of  two-course 34 

' '    ,  Wearing  course  for  two-course 34 

Walks 129 

' '     ,  Finishing , 133 

' '     ,  Protection 133 

"     ,  Size  of  slabs 132 

Wall,  Panel  type 78 

Walls 73 

' '    ,  Ordinary  building,  Mixtures  for 34 

' '    ,  Watertight  basement,  Mixture  for 33 

Water,  Amount  required  in  concrete 26 

' '     ,    -Clean,  pure  water  necessary  for  concrete 18 

Waterproofing  porous  surface 120 

Water-tightness,  How  secured 51 

Winter  Concreting . 30 


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INDEX  TO  SUBJECTS 

Automobiles    3 

Balloons     » 4 

Brazing   and    Soldering 4 

Cams    15 

Charts    : 4 

Chemistry    26 

Civil   Engineering    6 

Coke 6 

Compressed    Air    6 

Concrete    » 6,  7,  8 

Dictionaries     9 

Dies— Metal  Work   8,  9 

Drawing — Sketching    Paper    9 

Electricity    10,    11,   12,  13 

Enameling     13 

Factory    Management,    etc 13 

Fuel    13 

Flying    Machines 4 

Gas  Engines  and  Gas 14,  15 

Gearing  and  Cams IS 

Hydraulics    16 

Ice  and   Refrigeration 16 

Inventions — Patents    16 

Knots   16 

Lathe  Work    17 

Liquid  Air    17 

Locomotive   Engineering 18,   19,  20 

Machine   Shop    Practice 20,   21,  22,  23 

Manual   Training    24 

Marine   Engineering 23,  24 

Mechanical   Movements    ; 22 

Metal   Work-Dies    8,  9 

Mining 24 

Motoi   Cycles   3,  4 

Patents    and    Inventions 16 

Patter?,    Making    25 

Perfumery     25 

Plumbing     26 

Receipt  Book    26 

Refrigeration   and  Ice ^ 16 

Rubber  27 

Saws 27 

Screw  Cutting   28 

Sneet  Metal  Work 8 

Soldering 4 

Steam   Engineering    28,  29 

Steam    Heating  and   Ventilation 30 

Steam  Pipes   29 

Steel     30 

Tractor 31 

Turbines    31 

Watch  Making  32 

Wireless  Telephones 13 


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GONDOLA  CAR  CHART.  A  chart  showing  the 
anatomy  of  a  gondola  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car 
numbered  and  its  proper  reference  name  given  in  a  refer- 
ence list.  Price,  25  cents 

PASSENGER  CAR  CHART.  A  chart  showing  the 
anatomy  of  a  passenger  car,  having  every  part  of  the  car 
numbered  and  its  proper  name  given  in  a  reference  list. 

Price,    25    cents 

STEEL  HOPPER  BOTTOM  COAL  CAR.  A  chart 
showing  the  anatomy  of  a  steel  hopper  bottom  coal  car, 
having  every  part  of  the  car  numbered  and  its  proper  name 
given  in  a  reference  list.  ,  Price,  25  cents 

TRACTIVE  POWER  CHART.  A  chart  whereby 
you  can  find  the  tractive  power  or  drawbar  pull  of  any  loco- 
motive without  making  a  figure.  Shows  what  cylinders  are 
equal,  how  driving  wheels  and  steam  pressure  affect  the 
power.  What  sized  engine  you  need  to  exert  a  given  draw- 
bar pull  or  anything  you  desire  in  this  line.  5O  cents 

HORSE  ToWER  CHART.  Shows  the  horse  power 
of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter 
what  the  cylinder  diameter  of  stroke,  the  steam  pressure  or 
cut-off,  the  revolutions,  or  whether  condensing  or  non-con- 
densing, it's  all  there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate  and  saves  time 
and  calculations.  Especially  useful  to  engineers  and  de- 
signers. Price,  5O  cents 

BOILER  ROOM  CHART.  By  CEO.  L.  FOWLER.  A 
chart — size  14  x  28  inches — showing  in  isometric  perspective 
the  mechanisms  belonging  in  a  modern  boiler  room.  This 
chart  is  really  a  dictionary  of  the  boiler  room — the  names 
of  more  than  200  parts  being  given.  Price,  25  cents 


CIVIL    ENGINEERING 


HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL, 
ENGINEERING  AND  ALLIED  TRADES.  Edited 
by  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.M.E.  This  set  of  five  volumes 
contains  about  2,500  large  quarto  pages  with  thousands  of 
illustrations,  including  diagrammatic  and  sectional  drawings 
with  full  explanatory  details.  This  work  covers  the  entire 
practice  of  civil  and  mechanical  engineering.  As  a  work  of 
reference  it  is  without  a  peer.  $6.OO  per  single  volume. 
For  complete  set  of  five  volumes,  Price,  $25. OO 


COKE 


COKE— MODERN  COKING  PRACTICE?  IN- 
CLUDING THE  ANALYSIS  OP  MATERIALS 
AND  PRODUCTS.  By  T.  H.  BYROM  and  J.  E.  CHRISTO- 
PHER. A  handbook  for  those  engaged  in  coke  manufacture 
and  the  recovery  of  by-products.  Fully  illustrated  with  fold- 
ing plates.  Price,  $3.5O  net 


COMPRESSED  AIR 


COMPRESSED  AIR  IN  ALL  ITS  APPLICA^ 
TIONS.  By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  the  most  com- 
plete book  on  the  subject  of  air  that  has  ever  been  issued, 
and  its  thirty-five  chapters  include  about  every  phase  of  the 
subject  one  can  think  of.  It  may  be  called  an  encyclopedia 
of  compressed  air.  It  is  written  by  an  expert,  who,  in  its 
665  pages,  has  dealt  with  the  subject  in  a  comprehensive 
manner,  no  phase  of  it  being  omitted.  Over  500  illustra- 
tions. Fifth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Cloth  bound, 
$5.OO.  Half  Morocco,  Price,  $6.5O 

This  is  the  standard  work  on  this  important  subject. 


CONCRETE 

CONCRETE  WALL  FORMS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 
A  new  automatic  wall  clamp  is  illustrated  with  working 
drawings.  Other  types  of  wall  forms,  clamps,  separators, 
etc.,  are  also  illustrated  and  explained.  Price,  5O  cents 

CONCRETE    FLOORS    AND    SIDEWALKS.      By 

A.  A.  'HOUGHTON.  The  molds  for  molding  squares,  hexagonal 
and  many  other  styles  of  mosaic  floor  and  sidewalk  blocks 
are  fully  illustrated  and  explained.  Price,  5O  cents 

PRACTICAL  CONCRETE  SILO  CONSTRUC- 
TION. By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  Complete  working  drawings 
and  specifications  are  given  for  several  styles  of  concrete 
silos,  with  illustrations  of  molds  for  monolithic  and  block 
silos.  The  tables,  data,  and  information  presented  in  this 
book  are  of  the  utmost  value  in  planning  and  constructing 
all  forms  of  concrete  silos.  Price,  5O  cent* 


MOLDING  CONCRETE  BATH  TUBS,  AQUAR- 
IUMS AND  NATATORIUMS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 
Simple  molds  and  instruction  are  given  for  molding  differ- 
ent styles  of  concrete  bath  tubs,  swimming  pools,  etc. 

Price,  5O  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  CHIMNEYS,  SLATE 
AND  ROOF  TILES.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  The  manu- 
facture of  all  types  of  concrete  slate  and  roof  tile  is  fully 
treated.  Valuable  data  on  all  forms  of  reinforced  concrete 
roofs  are  contained  within  its  pages.  The  construction  of 
concrete  chimneys  by  block  and  monolithic  systems  is  fully 
illustrated  and  described.  A  number  of  ornamental  designs 
of  chimney  construction  with  molds  are  shown  in  this 
valuable  treatise.  Price,  5O  cents 

MOLDING  AND  CURING  ORNAMENTAL  CON- 
CRETE. By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  The  proper  proportions 
of  cement  and  aggregates  for  various  finishes,  also  the  meth- 
ods of  thoroughly  mixing  and  placing  in  the  molds,  are  fully 
treated.  An  exhaustive  treatise  on  this  subject  that  every 
concrete  worker  will  find  of  daily  use  and  value. 

Price,  5O  cents 

CONCRETE  MONUMENTS,  MAUSOLEUMS  AND 
BURIAL  VAULTS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  The  mold- 
ing of  concrete  monuments  to  imitate  the  most  expensive 
cut  stone  is  explained  in  this  treatise,  with  working  draw- 
ings of  easily  built  molds.  Cutting  inscriptions  and  designs 
is  also  fully  treated.  Price,  5O  cents 

CONCRETE  BRIDGES,  CULVERTS  AND  SEW- 
ERS. By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  A  number  of  ornamental  con- 
crete bridges  with  illustrations  of  molds  are  given.  A  col- 
lapsible center  or  core  for  bridges,  culverts  and  sewers  is 
fully  illustrated  with  detailed  instructions  for  building. 

Price,  5O  cents 

CONSTRUCTING     CONCRETE     PORCHES.       By 

A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  A  number  of  designs  with  working  draw- 
ings of  molds  are  fully  explained  so  any  one  can  easily  con- 
struct different  styles  of  ornamental  concrete  porches  with- 
out the  purchase  of  expensive  molds.  Price,  5O  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  FLOWER  POTS, 
BOXES,  JARDINIERES,  ETC.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON. 
The  molds  for  producing  many  original  designs  of  flower 
pots,  urns,  flower  boxes,  jardinieres,  etc.,  are  fully  illustrated 
and  explained,  so  the  worker  can  easily  construct  and  operate 
same.  Price,  5O  cents 

MOLDING  CONCRETE  FOUNTAINS  AND 
LAWN  ORNAMENTS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  The 
molding  of  a  number  of  designs  of  lawn  seats,  curbing,  hitch- 
ing posts,  pergolas,  sun  dials  and  other  forms  of  ornamental 
concrete,  for  the  ornamentation  of  lawns  and  gardens,  is 
fully  illustrated  and  described.  Price,  5O  cents 

CONCRETE  FOR  THE  FARM  AND  SHOP.  The 
molding  of  drain  tile,  tanks,  cisterns,  fence  posts,  stable 
floors,  hog  and  poultry  houses  and  all  the  purposes  for  which 
concrete  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  farmer  are  numbered 
among  the  contents  of  this  handy  volume. 

Price,   75  cents 
7 


CONCRETE    PROM    SAND    MOL.DS.      By    A.    A. 

HOUGHTON.  A  practical  work  treating  on  a  process  which 
has  heretofore  been  held  as  a  trade  secret  by  the  few  who 
possessed  it,  and  which  will  successfully  mold  every  and  any 
class  of  ornamental  concrete  work.  The  process  of  molding 
concrete  with  sand  molds  is  of  the  utmost  practical  value, 
possessing  the  manifold  advantages  of  a  low  cost  of  molds, 
the  ease  and  rapidity  of  operation,  perfect  details  to  all  orna- 
mental designs,  density  and  increased  strength  of  the  con- 
crete, perfect  curing  of  the  work  without  attention  and  the 
easy  removal  of  the  molds  regardless  of  any  undercutting 
the  design  may  have.  192  pages.  Fully  illustrated.  Cloth. 

Price,  $2.00 

ORNAMENTAL  CONCRETE  WITHOUT 
MOLDS.  By  A.  A.  HOUGHTON.  The  process  for  making 
ornamental  concrete  without  molds  has  long  been  held  as  a 
secret,  and  now,  for  the  first  time,  this  process  is  given  to 
the  public.  The  book  reveals  the  secret  and  is  the  only 
book  published  which  explains  a  simple,  practical  method 
whereby  the  concrete  worker  is  enabled,  by  employing 
wood  and  metal  templates  of  different  designs,  to  mold  or 
model  in  concrete  any  cornice,  archivolt,  column,  pedestal, 
base  cap,  urn  or  pier  in  a  monolithic  form — right  upon  the 
job.  These  may  be  molded  in  units  or  blocks,  and  then 
built  up  to  suit  the  specifications  demanded.  This  work  is 
fully  illustrated,  with  detailed  engravings.  Cloth. 

Price,  $3.00 

POPULAR  HANDBOOK  FOR  CEMENT  AND 
CONCRETE  USERS.  By  MYRON  H.  LEWIS.  "Everything 
of  value  to  the  concrete  user  is  contained,  including  kinds 
of  cement  employed  in  construction,  concrete  architecture, 
inspection  and  testing,  waterproofing,  coloring  and  painting, 
rules,  tables,  working  and  cost  data.  The  book  comprises 
thirty-three  chapters.  A  valuable  addition  to  the  library  of 
every  cement  and  concrete  user.  Cloth,  430  pages,  126  illus- 
trations. Price,  $2.50 

•WATERPROOFING  CONCRETE.  By  MYRON  H. 
LEWIS.  Modern  methods  of  waterproofing  concrete  and  other 
structures.  A  condensed  statement  of  the  principles,  *-ules 
and  precautions  to  be  observed  in  waterproofing  and  damp- 
proofing  structures  and  structural  materials.  Paper  binding. 
Illustrated.  Second  Edition.  Price,  5O  cents 


DIES— METAL   WORK 

PUNCHES,  DIES  AND  TOOLS  FOR  MANUFAC- 
TURING IN  PRESSES.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  An 
encyclopedia  of  die-making,  punch-making,  die-sinking,  sheet- 
metal  working,  and  making  of  special  tools,  suppresses,  de- 
vices and  mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting, 
bending,  forming,  piercing,  drawing,  compressing,  and  assem- 
bling sheet-metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other  materials 
in  machine  tools.  This  is  a  distinct  work  from  the  author  s 
book  entitled  "Dies;  Their  Construction  and  Use."  500 
pages,  700  engravings.  Second  edition.  Cloth. 

Price,  $4.OO 

8 


DIES,  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  FOR 
THE  MODERN  WORKING  OF  SHEET  METALS. 

By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH.  A  new  book  by  a  practical  man,  for 
those  who  wish  to  know  the  latest  practice  in  the  working 
of  sheet  metals.  It  shows  how  dies  are  designed,  made  and 
used,  and  those  who  are  engaged  in  this  line  of  work  can 
secure  many  valuable  suggestions.  •  Fifth  edition.  505  illus- 
trations, 384  pages.  Cloth.  Price,  $ 3.OO 

DROP  FORGING,  DIE-SINKING  AND  MA- 
CHINE-FORMING OF  STEEL,.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH. 
The  processes  of  die-sinking  and  force-making,  which  are 
thoroughly  described  and  illustrated  in  this  admirable  work, 
are  rarely  to  be  found  explained  in  such  a  clear  and  con- 
cise manner  as  is  here  set  forth.  The  process  of  die-sink- 
ing relates  to  the  engraving  or  sinking  of  the  female  or  lower 
dies,  such  as  are  used  for  drop  forgings,  hot  and  cold 
machine  forging,  swedging  and  the  press  working  of  metals. 
The  process  of  force-making  relates  to  the  engraving  or 
raising  of  the  male  or  upper  dies  used  in  producing  the  lower 
dies  for  the  press-forming  and  machine-forging  of  duplicate 
parts  of  metal.  The  book  contains  eleven  chapters,  and  the 
information  contained  in  these  chapters  is  just  what  will 
prove  most  valuable  to  the  forged-metal  worker.  All  opera- 
tions described  in^  the  work  are  thoroughly  illustrated  by 
means  of  perspective  half-tones  and  outline  sketches  of  the 
machinery  employed.  300  detailed  illustrations.  339  pages, 
cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 

DICTIONARIES 


STANDARD   ELECTRICAL,   DICTIONARY.      By 

T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  A  practical  handbook  of  reference  con- 
taining definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words,  terms  and 
phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and  include 
every  term  used  in  electrical  science.  Recently  issued. 
Twelfth  Edition.  682  pages,  393  illustrations.  Price,  $3.OO 


DRAWING  — SKETCHING   PAPER 

LINEAR    PERSPECTIVE    SELF-TAUGHT.      By 

HERMAN  T.  C.  KRAUS.  This  work  gives  the  theory  and 
practice  of  linear  perspective,  as  used  in  architectural,  engi- 
neering and  mechanical  drawings.  The  arrangement  of  the 
book  is  good;  the  plate  is  on  the  left-hand,  while  the  descrip- 
tive text  follows  on  the  opposite  page,  so  as  to  be  readily 
referred  to.  The  drawings  are  on  sufficiently  large  scale  to 
show  the  work  clearly  and  are  plainly  figured.  The  whole 
work  makes  a  very  complete  course  on  perspective  drawing. 
Cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 

SELF-TAUGHT        MECHANICAL        DRAWING 
AND   ELEMENTARY  MACHINE   DESIGN.     By  F. 

L.  SYLVESTER,  M.E.,  Draftsman,  with  additions  by  Erik 
Oberg,  associate  editor  of  "Machinery."  A  practical  ele- 
mentary treatise  on  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Machine  De- 
sign, comprising  the  first  principles  of  geometric  and  mechan- 
ical drawing,  workshop  mathematics,  mechanics,  strength  of 
materials  and  the  calculation  and  design  of  machine  details, 
compiled  for  the  use  of  practical  mechanics  and  young 
draftsmen.  330  pages,  215  engravings,  cloth.  Price,  $2.OO 


A  NEW  SKETCHING  PAPER.  A  new  specially 
ruled  paper  to  enable  you  to  make  sketches  or  drawings  in 
isometric  perspective  without  any  figuring  or  fussing.  It  is 
being  used  for  shop  details  as  well  as  for  assembly  drawings, 
as  it  makes  one  sketch  do  the  work  of  three,  and  no  work- 
man can  help  seeing  just  what  is  wanted.  Pads  of  40  sheets, 
6x9  inches,  Price,  25  cents 

9  x  12  inches,  Price,    5O    cents 

12  x  18  inches,  Price,  ?1.OO 

PRACTICAL,  PERSPECTIVE.  By  RICHARDS  and 
COLVIN.  Shows  just  how  to  make  all  kinds  of  mechanical 
irawings  in  the  only  practical  perspective  isometric.  Makes 
everything  plain  so  that  any  mechanic  can  understand  a 
sketch  or  drawing  in  this  way.  Saves  time  in  the  drawing 
room  and  mistakes  in  the  shops.  Contains  practical  exam- 
ples of  various  classes  of  work.  Third  edition.  Limp 
cloth.  Price,  5O  cents 


ELECTRICITY 


ARITHMETIC  OF  ELECTRICITY.  By  PROF.  T. 
O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  A  practical  treatise  on  electrical  calcula- 
tions of  all  kinds  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules,  all  of  the 
simplest  forms,  and  involving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each 
rule  illustrated  by  one  or  more  practical  problems  with  de- 
tailed solution  of  each  one.  This  book  is  classed  among  the 
most  useful  works  published  on  the  science  of  electricity, 
covering  as  it  does  the  mathematics  of  electricity  in  a  man- 
ner that  will  attract  the  attention  of  those  who  are  not 
familiar  with  algebraical  formulas.  160  pages.  Twenty-first 
edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.OO 

DYNAMO  BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS,  OR 
HOW  TO  CONSTRUCT  A  FIFTY  WATT  DY- 
NAMO. By  ARTHUR  J.  WEED.  A  practical  treatise  show- 
ing in  detail  the  construction  of  a  small  dynamo  or  motor, 
the  entire  machine  work  of  which  can  be  done  on  a  small 
foot  lathe.  Dimensioned  working  drawings  are  given  for 
each  piece  of  machine  work,  and  each  operation  is  clearly 
described.  This  machine,  when  used  as  a  dynamo,  has  an 
output  of  fifty  watts;  when  used  as  a  motor  it  will  drive  a 
small  drill  press  or  lathe.  It  can  be  used  to  drive  a  sewing 
machine  on  any  and  all  ordinary  work.  The  book  is  illus- 
trated with  more  than  sixty  original  engravings  showing  the 
actual  construction  of  the  different  parts. 

Price,  paper  binding,  5O  cents;  Cloth,  $1.OO 

ELECTRIC  WIRING,  DIAGRAMS  AND 
SWITCHBOARDS.  By  NEWTON  HARRISON.  This  is  the 
only  complete  work  issued  showing  and  telling  you  what  you 
should  know  about  direct  and  alternating  current  wiring.  It 
is  a  ready  reference.  The  work  is  free  from  advanced  tech- 
nicalities and  mathematics,  arithmetic  being  used  throughout. 
It  is  in  every  respect  a  handy,  well-written,  instructive,  com- 
prehensive volume  on  wiring  for  the  wireman,  foremPn,  con- 
tractor or  electrician.  272  pages,  105  illustrations.  Cloth. 

Price. 
10 


COMMUTATOR  CONSTRUCTION.  By  WM.  BAX- 
TER, JR.  The  business  end  of  any  dynamo  or  motor  of  the 
direct  current  type  is  the  commutator.  This  book  goes  into 
the  designing,  building  and  maintenance  of  commutators, 
shows  how  to  locate  troubles  and  how  to  remedy  them; 
everyone  who  fusses  with  dynamos  needs  this.  Fourth  edi- 
tion. Price,  25  cents 


ELECTRIC  FURNACES  AND  THEIR  INDUS- 
TRIAL, APPLICATIONS.  By  J.  WRIGHT.  This  is  a 
book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people; 
the  manufacturer  who  desires  to  know  what  product  can  be 
manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace,  the  chem- 
ist -who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  the  electro-chemistry,  and 
the  student  of  science  who  merely  looks  into  the  subject 
from  curiosity.  288  pages.  Fully  illustrated,  cloth. 

Price,   93.00 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  AND  HEATING  POCK- 
ET BOOK.  By  SYDNEY  F.  WALKER.  This  book  puts  in 
convenient  form  useful  information  regarding  the  apparatus 
which  is  likely  to  be  attached  to  the  mains  of  an  electrical 
company.  Tables  of  units  and  equivalents  are  included  and 
useful  electrical  laws  and  formulas  are  stated.  438  pages, 
300  engravings.  Bound  in  leather.  Pocket  book  form. 

Price,  ? 3.00 

ELECTRIC  TOY  MAKING,  DYNAMO  BUILD- 
ING, AND  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys, 
electrical  apparatus,  motors,  dynamos  and  instruments  in 
general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  young 
and  old  the  manufacture  of  genuine  and  useful  electrical 
appliances.  210  pages,  cloth.  Fully  illustrated.  Twentieth 
edition,  enlarged.  Price,  $1.OO 

PRACTICAL  ELECTRICITY.  By  PROF.  T. 
O'CONOR  SLOANE.  This  work  of  768  pages  was  previously 
known  as  Sloane's  Electricians'  lland  Book,  and  is  intended 
for  the  practical  electrician  who  has  to  make  things  go. 
The  entire  field  of  electricity  is  covered  within  its  pages. 
It  contains  no  useless  theory;  everything  is  to  the  point.  It 
teaches  you  just  what  you  should  know  about  electricity.  It 
is  the  standard  work  published  on  the  subject.  Forty-one 
chapters,  610  engravings,  761  pages,  handsomely  bound  in 
cloth.  Third  edition.  Price,  $2.5O 

ELECTRICITY  SIMPLIFIED.  By  PROF.  T. 
O'CONOR  SLOANE.  The  object  of  "Electricity  Simplified"  is 
to  make  the  subject  as  plain  as  possible  and  to  show  what 
the  modern  conception  of  electricity  is;  to  show  how  two 
plates  of  different  metals  immersed  in  acid  can  send  a  mes- 
sage around  the  globe;  to  explain  how  a  bundle  of  copper 
wire  rotated  by  a  steam  engine  can  be  the  agent  in  lighting 
our  streets,  to  tell  what  the  volt,  ohm  and  ampere  are,  and 
what  high  and  low  tension  mean;  and  to  answer  the  ques- 
tions that  perpetually  arise  in  the  mind  in  this  age  of  elec- 
tricity. 172  pages.  Illustrated.  Thirteenth  edition.  "<']oth. 

Price,  $1.00 
11 


HOUSE  WIRING.  By  THOMAS  W.  POPPE.  Describing 
and  illustrating  up-to-date  methods  of  installing  electric  light 
wiring.  Intended  for  the  electrician,  helper  and  apprentice. 
Contains  just  the  information  needed  for  successful  wiring 
of  a  building.  Fully  illustrated  with  diagrams  and  plans. 
It  solves  all  wiring  problems  and  contains  nothing  that  con- 
flicts with  the  rulings  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers. It  gives  just  the  information  essential  to  the  suc- 
cessful wiring  of  a  building.  125  pages,  fully  illustrated, 
flexible  cloth.  Price,  5O  cents 

MANAGEMENT  OP  DYNAMOS.  By  LUMMIS-PAT- 
ERSON.  A  handbook  of  theory  and  practice.  This  work  is 
arranged  in  three  parts.  The  first  part  covers  the  elementary 
theory  of  the  dynamo.  The  second  part,  the  construction 
and  action  of  the  different  classes  of  dynamos  in  common 
use  are  described;  while  the  third  part  relates  to  such 
matters  as  affect  the  practical  management  and  working  of 
dynamos  and  motors.  Fourth  edition.  292  pages,  117  illus- 
trations. Price,  ^l.SO 

ELECTRICITY  IN  FACTORIES  AND  WORK- 
SHOPS. Its  cost  and  convenience.  A  handy  book  for 
power  producers  and  power  users.  By  ARTHUR  P.  HASLAM. 
S*/2  x  8.  Cloth,  312  pages,  70  illustrations.  Price,  $2.5O 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL,  ELECTRI- 
CIAN. By  PROF.  T.  O'CONOR  SLOANE.  An  interesting  book 
from  cover  to  cover.  Telling  in  simplest  language  the  surest 
and  easiest  way  to  become  a  successful  electrician.  The 
studies  to  be  followed,  methods  of  work,  field  of  operation 
and  the  requirements  of  the  successful  electrician  are  pointed 
out  and  fully  explained.  202  pages.  Illustrated.  Eighteenth 
revised  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.OO 

STANDARD    ELECTRICAL    DICTIONARY.      By 

PROF.  T.  O'CONOR  SLOANE.  A  practical  handbook  of  refer- 
ence containing  definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words, 
terms  and  phrases.  The  definitions  are  terse  and  concise  and 
include  every  term  used  in  electrical  science.  Twelfth  edi- 
tion. 682  pages,  393  illustrations.  Price,  $3.OO 

^  SWITCHBOARDS.  By  WILLIAM  BAXTER,  JR.  This 
book  appeals  to  every  engineer  and  electrician  who  wanes  to 
know  the  practical  side  of  things.  All  sorts  and  conditions 
of  dynamos,  connections  and  circuits  are  shown  by  diagram 
and  illustrate  just  how  the  switchboard  should  be  connected. 
Includes  direct  and  alternating  current  boards,  also  those 
for  arc  lighting,  incandescent  and  power  circuits.  Special 
treatment  on  high  voltage  boards  for  power  transmission. 
Second  edition.  190  pages.  Illustrated.  Price,  $1.5O 

TELEPHONE  CONSTRUCTION,  INSTALLA- 
TION, WIRING,  OPERATION  AND  MAINTE- 
NANCE. By  W.  H.  RADCLIFFE  and  H.  C.  GUSHING.  This 
book  gives  the  principles  of  construction  and  operation  of 
both  the  Bell  and  Independent  instruments;  approved  meth- 
ods of  installing  and  wiring  them;  the  means  of  protecting 
them  from  lighting  and  abnormal  currents;  their  connection 
together  for  operation  as  series  or  bridging  stations;  and 
rules  for  their  inspection  and  maintenance.  Line  wiring  and 
the  wiring  and  operation  of  special  telephone  systems  are 
also  treated.  224  pages,  132  illustrations.  Second  revised 
edition.  Price,  fl.OO 

12 


"  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  AND  TELEPHONY 

SIMPLY  EXPLAINED.  By  ALFRED  P.  MORGAN.  This 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  complete  and  comprehen- 
sible treatises  on  the  subject  ever  published,  and  a  close 
study  of  its  pages  will  enable  one  to  master  all  the  details 
of  the  wireless  transmission  of  messages.  The  author  has 
filled  a  long-felt  want  and  has  succeeded  in  furnishing  a  lucid, 
comprehensible  explanation  in  simple  language  of  the  theory 
and  practice  of  wireless  telegraphy  and  telephony.  154  pages, 
156  engravings.  Price,  $1.OO 

WIRING  A  HOUSE.  By  HERBERT  PRATT.  Shows  a 
house  already  built;  tells  just  how  to  start  about  wiring  it; 
where  to  begin;  what  wire  to  use;  how  to  run  it  accord- 
ing to  insurance  rules;  in  fact,  just  the  information  you 
need.  Directions  apply  equally  to  a  shop.  Fourth  edition. 

Price,  25  cents 

ENAMELING    * 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  RE- 
CEIPT BOOK.  Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  A  work 
of  10,000  practical  receipts,  including  enameling  receipts  for 
hollow  ware,  for  metals,  for  signs,  for  china  and  porcelain, 
for  wood.  etc.  Thorough  and  practical.  1914  edition. 

•    '\.  Price,  $3.OO 

*    FACTORY    MANAGEMENT,    ETC, 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION, 
EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT.  By  O.  E. 

PERRIGO,  M.E.  A  work  designed  for  the  practical  and  every- 
day use  of  the  architect  who  designs,  the  manufacturers  who 
build,  the  engineers  who  plan  and  equip,  the  superinten- 
dents who  organize  and  direct,  and  for  the  information  of 
every  stockholder,  director,  officer,  accountant,  clerk,  super- 
intendent, foreman  and  workman  of  the  modern  machine 
shop  and  manufacturing  plant  of  Industrial  America. 

S  Price,   ? 5.00 

FUEL  A 


'  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVEN- 
TION OF  SMOKE.  By  WM.  M.  BARR.  This  book  has 
been  prepared  with  special  reference  to  the  generation  of 
heat  by  the  combustion  of  the  common  fuels  found  in  the 
United  States,  and  deals  particularly  with  the  conditions 
necessary  to  the  economic  and  smokeless  combustion  of 
bituminous  coals  in  stationary  and  locomotive  steam  boilers. 
The  presentation  of  this  important  subject  is  systematic  and 
progressive.  The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  in  a  series  of 
practical  questions  to  which  are  appended  accurate  answers, 
which  describe  in  language,  *ree  from  technicalities,  the  sev- 
eral processes  involved  in  the  furnace  combustion  of  Amer- 
ican fuels;  it  clearly  states  the  essential  requisites  for  per- 
fect combustion,  and  points  out  the  best  methods  for  fur- 
nace construction  for  obtaining  the  greatest  quantity  of  heat 
from  any  given  quality  of  coal.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully 
illustrated.  Fifth  edition.  Price,  fl.OO 

SMOKE  PREVENTION  AND  FUEL  ECONOMY. 
By  BOOTH  and  KERSHAW.  As  the  title  indicates,  this  book 
of  197  pages  and  75  illustrations  deals  with  the  problem  of 
complete  combustion,  which  it  treats  from  the  chemical  and 
mechanical  standpoints,  besides  pointing  out  the  economical 
and  humanitarian  aspects  of  the  question.  Price,  Jf-.5O 
13 


GAS  ENGINES    AND  GAS 


,  GAS  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTION,  Or  How  to  Build 
a  Half-'Horse-power  Gas  Engine.  By  PARSELL  and  WEED. 
A  practical  treatise  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of 
the  action  of  gas  engines  of  various  types,  and  the  design 
and  construction  of  a  half-horse-power  gas  engine,  with  illus- 
trations of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  dimen- 
sioned working  drawings  giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  vari- 
ous details.  300  pages.  Third  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 

CHEMISTRY  OP  GAS  MANUFACTURE.     By  H. 

M.  ROYLES.  This  book  covers  points  likely  to  arise  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  the  duties  of  the  engineer  or  manager  of 
a  gas  works  not  large  enough  to  necessitate  the  employment 
of  a  separate  chemical  staff.  It  treats  of  the  testing  of  the 
raw  materials  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating 
coal  gas  and  of  the  gas  produced.  The  preparation  of 
standard  solutions  is  given  as  well  as  the  chemical  and  physi- 
cal examination  of  gas  coal.  5>4x8M.  Cloth,  328  pages,  82 
illustrations,  1  colored  plate.  Price,  Jp4.5O 

THE  GASOLINE  ENGINE  ON  THE  FARM: 
ITS  OPERATION,  REPAIR  AND  USES.  By  XENO 
W.  PUTNAM.  A  useful  and  practical  treatise  on  the  modern 
gasoline  and  kerosene  engine,  its  construction,  management, 
repair  and  the  many  uses  to  which  it  can  be  applied  in 
present-day  farm  life.  It  considers  all  the  various  household, 
shop  and  field  uses  of  this  up-to-date  motor  and  includes 
chapters  on  engine  installation,  power  transmission  and  the 
best  arrangement  of  the  power  plant  in  reference  to  the 
work.  5K*7/4  Cloth.  527  pages.  179  illustrations. 
<  t  ,  -^  ,  Price,  ?3.00 

^GASOLINE  ENGINES:  THEIR  OPERATION, 
USE  AND  CARE.  By  A.  HYATT  VERRILL.  A  comprehen- 
sive, simple  and  practical  work,  treating  of  gasoline  engines 
for  stationary,  marine  or  vehicle  use;  their  construction,  de- 
sign, management,  care,  operation,  repair,  installation  and 
troubles.  A  complete  glossary  of  technical  terms  and  an  alpha- 
betically arranged  table  of  troubles  and  symptoms  form  a 
most  valuable  and  unique  feature  of  the  book.  5^4  x  7J^. 
Cloth.  275  pages,  152  illustrations.  Price,  $1  5O 

GAS,  GASOLINE  AND  OIL,  ENGINES.  By  GARD- 
NER D.  Hiscox.  Revised  by  VICTOR  W.  PAGE.  Just  issued 
191K  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  Every  user  of  a  gas 
engine  needs  this  book.  Simple,  instructive  and  right  up- 
to-date.  The  only  complete  work  on  the  subject.  Tells  all 
about  internal  combustion  engineering,  treating  exhaustively 
on  the  design,  construction  and  practical  application  of  all 
forms  of  gas,  gasoline,  kerosene  and  crude  petroleum-oil  en- 
gines. Describes  minutely  all  auxiliary  systems,  such  as 
lubrication,  carburetion  and  ignition.  Considers  the  theory 
and  management  of  all  forms  of  explosive  motors  for  sta- 
tionary and  marine  work,  automobiles,  aeroplanes  and  motor- 
cycles. Includes  also  Producer  Gas  and  Its  Production. 
Invaluable  instructions  for  all  students,  gas-engine  owners, 
gas-engineers,  patent  experts,  designers,  mechanics,  drafts- 
men and  all  having  to  do  with  the  modern  power.  Illustrated 
by  over  400  engravings,  many  specially  made  from  engineer- 
ing drawings,  all  in  correct  proportion.  650  pages,  435  en- 
gravings. Price,  net,  $2.5O 
14 


MODERN  GAS  ENGINES  AND  PRODUCER 
GAS  PLANTS.  By  R.  E.  MATHOT,  M.E.  A  practical 
treatise  of  320  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  175  detailed  illus- 
trations, setting  forth  the  principles  of  gas  engines  and  pro- 
ducer design,  the  selection  and  installation  of  an  engine, 
conditions  of  perfect  operation,  producer-gas  engines  and 
their  possibilities,  the  care  of  gas  engines  and  producer-gas 
plants,  with  a  chapter  on  volatile  hydrocarbon  and  oil  en- 
gines. This  book  has  been  endorsed  by  Dugal  Clerk  as  a 
most  useful  work  for  all  interested  in  gas  engine  installation 
and  producer  gas.  Price,  $2.5O 

HOW     TO     RUN     AND     INSTALL,     GASOLINE 

ENGINES.  By  C.  VON  CULIN.  New  revised  and  enlarged 
edition  just  issued.  The  object  of  this  little  book  is  to  fur- 
nish a  pocket  instructor  for  the  beginner,  the  busy  man  who 
uses  an  engine  for  pleasure  or  profit,  but  who  does  not 
have  the  time  or  inclination  for  a  technical  book,  but  sim- 
ply to  thoroughly  understand  how  to  properly  operate,  install 
and  care  for  his  own  engine.  The  index  refers  to  each 
trouble,  remedy  and  subject  alphabetically.  Being  a  quick 
reference  to  find  the  cause,  remedy  and  _  prevention  for 
troubles,  and  to  become  an  expert  with  his  own  engine. 
Pocket  size.  Paper  binding.  Price,  25  cents 

MODERN  GAS  TRACTOR,  ITS  CONSTRUC- 
TION, UTILITY,  OPERATION  AND  REPAIR. 

By  VICTOR  W.  PAGE.  Treats  exhaustively  on  the  design  and 
construction  of  farm  tractors  and  tractor  "power-plants,  and 
gives  complete  instructions  on  their  care,  operation  and  re- 
pair. All  types  and  sizes  of  gasoline,  kerosene  and  oil 
tractory  are  described,  and  every  phase  of  traction  engineer- 
ing practice  fully  covered.  Invaluable  to  all  desiring  re- 
liable information  on  gas  motor  propelled  traction  engines 
and  their  use.  5*4  x?1/^.  Cloth.  475  pages,  204  illustrations, 
3  folding  plates.  Price,  $2.OO 


GEARING   AND    CAMS 


BEVEL  GEAR  TABLES.  By  D.  AG.  ENGSTROM. 
No  one  who  has  to  do  with  bevel  gears  in  any  way  should 
be  without  this  book.  The  designer  and  draftsman  will  find 
it  a  great  convenience,  while  to  the  machinist  who  turns  up 
the  blanks  or  cuts  the  teeth,  it  is  invaluable,  as  all  needed 
dimensions  are  given  and  no  fancy  figuring  need  be  done. 
Third  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.OO 

CHANGE  GEAR  DEVICES.  By  OSCAR  E.  FERRIC^ 
A  book  for  every  designer,  draftsman  and  mechanic  who  is 
interested  in  feed  changes  for  any  kind  of  machines.  This 
shows  what  has  been  done  and  how.  Gives  plans,  patents 
and  all  information  that  you  need.  Saves  hunting  through 
patent  records  and  reinventing  old  ideas.  A  standard  work 
of  reference.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.OO 

I 

DRAFTING  OF  CAMS.  By  Louis  ROUILLION.  The 
laying  out  of  cams  is  a  serious  problem  unl&ss  you  know  how 
to  go  at  H  right.  This  puts,  you  on  the  right  road  for  prac- 
tically any  kind  of  cam  vou  are  likely  to  run  up  against. 
Third  edition.  Price,  25  cent* 

15 


HYDRAULICS 


HYDRAULIC  ENGINEERING.  By  GARDNER  D. 
Hiscox.  A  treatise  on  the  properties,  power,  and  resources 
of  water  for  all  purposes.  Including  the  measurement  of 
streams;  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes  or  conduits;  the  horse- 
power of  falling  water;  turbine  and  impact  water-wheels; 
wave-motors,  centrifugal,  reciprocating  and  air-lift  pumps. 
With  300  figures  and  diagrams  and  36  practical  tables.  320 
pages.  Price,  $4.OO 

ICE   AND   REFRIGERATION 

POCKETBOOK  OP  REFRIGERATION  AND 
ICE  MAKING.  By  A.  J.  WALLIS-TAYLOR.  This  is  one  of 
the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published 
on  the  subject  of  refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains 
the  properties  and  refrigerating  effect  of  the  different  fluids 
in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the 
construction  and  insulation  of  cold  rooms  with  their  required 
pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of  cold;  freezing  mixtures 
and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  all 
kinds  of  provisions,  cold  storage  charges  for  all  classes  of 
goods,  ice  making  and  storage  of  ice,  data  and  memoranda 
for  constant  reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly 
one  hundred  tables  containing  valuable  references  to  every 
fact  and  condition  required  in  the  installment  and  operation 
of  a  refrigerating  plant.  New  edition  just  published. 

Price,  ?1.5O 

INVENTIONS— PATENTS 

INVENTOR'S  MANUAL,  HOW  TO  MAKE  A 
PATENT  PAY.  This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to 
inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking  out  their 
patents,  and  disposing  of  them.  It  is  not  in  any  sense  a 
Patent  Solicitor's  circular  nor  a  Patent  Broker's  advertise- 
ment. No  advertisements  of  any  description  appear  in  the 
work.  It  is  a  book  containing  a  quarter  of  a  century's  ex- 
perience of  a  successful  inventor,  together  with  notes  based 
upon  the  experience  of  many  other  inventors.  Revised  edi- 
tion. 120  plages.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.OO 

KNOTS 


KNOTS,    SPLICES    AND    ROPE    WORK.       By   A. 

HYATT  VERRILL.  This  is  a  practical  book  giving  complete 
and  simple  directions  for  making  all  the  most  useful  and  orna- 
mental knots  in  common  use,  with  chapters  on  Splicing, 
Pointing,  Seizing,  Serving,  etc.  This  book  is  fully  illus- 
trated with  one  hundred  and  fifty  original  engravings,  which 
shows  how  each  knot,  tie  or  splice  is  formed,  and  its  appear- 
ance when  finished.  The  book  will  be  found  of  the  greatest 
value  to  campers,  yachtsmen,  travelers  or  Boy  Scouts,  in 
fact,  to  anyone  having  occasion  to  use  or  handle  rope  or 
knots  for  any  purpose.  The  book  is  thoroughly  reliable  and 
practical,  and  is  not  only  a  guide  but  a  teacher.  It  is  the 
standard  work  on  the  subject.  118  pages,  ISO  original  en- 
gravings. Price,  GO  cents 


LATHE  WORK 


TURNING  AND  BORING  TAPERS.      By  FRED  H. 

COLVIN.  There  are  two  ways  to  turn  tapers;  the  right  way 
and  one  other.  This  treatise  has  to  do  with  the  right  way; 
it  tells  you  how  to  start  the  work  properly,  how  to  set  the 
lathe,  what  tools  to  use  and  how  to  use  them,  and  forty  and 
one  other  little  things  that  you  should  follow.  Fourth  edi- 
tion. Price,  25  cents 

LATHE  DESIGN.  CONSTRUCTION,  AND 
OPERATION,  WITH  PRACTICAL,  EXAMPLES 
OP  LATHE  WORK.  By  OSCAR  E.  PERRIGO.  A  New  revised 
edition,  and  the  only  complete  American  work  on  the  subject, 
written  by  a  man  who  knows  not  only  how  work  ought  to  be 
done,  but  who  also  knows  how  to  do  it,  and  how  to  convey 
this  knowledge  to  others.  It  is  strictly  up-to-date  in  its  de- 
scriptions and  illustrations.  Lathe  history  and  the  relations 
of  the  lathe  to  manufacturing  are  given;  also  a  description  of 
the  various  devices  for  feeds  and  thread  cutting  mechanisms 
from  early  efforts  in  this  direction  to  the  present  time.  Lathe 
ksign  is  thoroughly  discussed,  including  back  gearing,  driving 
tones,  thread-cutting  gears,  and  all  the  essential  element  of  the 
modern  lathe.  The  classification  of  lathes  is  taken  up,  giving 
the  essential  differences  of  the  several  types  of  lathes  including, 
as  is  usually  understood,  engine  lathes,  bench  lathes,  speed 
lathes,  forge  lathes,  gap  lathes,  pulley  lathes,  forming  lathes, 
multiple-spindle  lathes,  rapid-reduction  lathes,  precision  lathes, 
turret  lathes,  special  lathes,  electrically-driven  lathes,  etc. 
In  addition  to  the  complete  exposition  on  construction  and 
design,  much  practical  matter  on  lathe  installation,  care  and 
operation  has  been  incorporated  in  the  enlarged  1915  edi- 
tion. All  kinds  of  lathe  attachments  for  drilling,  milling, 
etc.,  are  described  and  complete  instructions  are  given  to 
enable  the  novice  machinist  to  grasp  the  art  of  lathe  oper- 
ation as  well  as  the  principles  involved  in  design.  A  number 
of  difficult  machining  operations  are  described  at  length  and 
illustrated.  The  new  edition  has  nearly  500  pages  and  350 
illustrations.  Price,  $2.5O 

PRACTICAL  METAL  TURNING.  By  JOSEPH  G. 
HORNER.  A  work  of  404  pages,  fully  illustrated,  covering  in 
a  comprehensive  manner  the  modern  practice  of  machining 
metal  parts  in  the  lathe,  including  the  regular  engine  lathe, 
its  essential  design,  its  uses,  its  tools,  its  attachments,  and 
the  manner  of  holding  the  work  and  performing  the  opera- 
tions. The  modernized  engine  lathe,  its  methods,  tools  and 
great  range  of  accurate  work.  The  turret  lathe,  its  tools, 
accessories  and  methods  of  performing  its  functions.  Chap- 
ters on  special  work,  grinding,  tool  holders,  speeds,  feeds, 
modern  tool  steels,  etc.,  etc.  Second  edition.  Price,  $3.5O 


LIQUID   AIR 

LIQUID  AIR  AND  THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF 
GASES.  By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE.  Theory,  history,  biog- 
raphy, practical  applications,  manufacture.  Second  edition. 
365  pages.  Illustrated.  Price,  $ 3.OO 

17 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEERING 

AIR-BRAKE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  H.  BLACK- 
ALL.  This  book  is  a  standard  text  book.  It  is  the  only- 
practical  and  complete  work  published.  Treats  on  the  equip- 
ment manufactured  by  the  Westinghouse  Air  Brake  Com- 
pany, including  the  E-T  Locomotive  Brake  Equipment,  the 
K  (Quick-Service)  Triple  Valve  for  freight  service;  the  L 
High  Speed  Triple  Valve;  the  P-C  Passenger  Brake  Equip- 
ment, and  the  Cross  Compound  Pump.  The  operation  of  all 
parts  of  the  apparatus  is  explained  in  detail  and  a  practical 
way  of  locating  their  peculiarities  and  remedying  their  de- 
fects is  given.  Endorsed  and  used  by  air-brake  instructors 
and  examiners  on  nearly  every  railroad  in  the  United  States. 
Twenty-sixth  edition.  411  pages,  fully  illustrated  with  fold- 
ing plates  and  diagrams.  New  edition.  Price,  $2.OO 

AMERICAN    COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES.      By 

FRED  H.  COLVIN.  The  most  complete  book  on  compounds 
published.  Shows  all  types,  including  the  balanced  compound. 
Makes  everything  clear  by  many  illustrations,  and  shows 
valve  setting,  breakdowns  and  repairs.  142  pages.  Cloth. 

Price,  $1.OO 

APPLICATION  OP  HIGHLY  SUPERHEATED 
STEAM  TO  LOCOMOTIVES.  By  ROBERT  GARBE.  A 
practical  book  which  cannot  be  recommended  too  highly  to 
those  motive-power  men  who  are  anxious  to  maintain  the 
highest  efficiency  in  their  locomotives.  Contains  special  chap- 
ters on  Generation  of  'Highly  Superheated  Steam;  Super- 
heated Steam  and  the  Two-Cylinder  Simple  Engine;  Com- 
pounding and  Superheating;  Designs  of  Locomotive  Super- 
heaters; Constructive  Details  of  Locomotives  Using  Highly 
Superheated  Steam.  Experimental  and  Working  Results. 
Illustrated  with  folding  plates  and  tables.  Cloth. 

Price,   $2.50 

COMBUSTION  OF  COAL  AND  THE  PREVEN- 
TION OP  SMOKE.  By  WM.  M.  BARR.  To  be  a  success  a 
fireman  must  be  "Light  on  Coal."  He  must  keep  his  fire 
in  good  condition,  and  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  smoke 
nuisance.  To  do  this,  he  should  know  how  coal  burns,  how 
smoke  is  formed  and  the  proper  burning  of  fuel  to  cotain 
the  best  results.  He  can  learn  this,  and  more  too,  from 
Barr's  "Combination  of  Coal."  It  is  an  absolute  authority 
on  all  questions  relating  to  the  firing  of  a  locomotive.  Fifth 
edition.  Nearly  350  pages,  fully  illustrated.  Price,  $1.OO 

DIARY  OP  A  ROUND-HOUSE  FOREMAN.      By 

T.  S.  REILLY.  This  is  the  greatest  book  of  railroad  experi- 
ences ever  published.  Containing  a  fund  of  information  and 
suggestions  along  the  line  of  handling  men,  organizing,  etc., 
that  one  cannot  afford  to  miss.  176  pages.  Price,  Jpl.OO 

LINK  MOTIONS,  VALVES  AND  VALVE  SET- 
TING. By  FRED  H.  COLVIN,  Associate  Editor  of  "American 
Machinist."  A  handy  book  that  clears  up  the  mysteries  of 
valve  setting.  Shows  the  different  valve  gears  in  use,  how 
they  work,  and  why.  Piston  and  slide  valves  of  different 
types  are  illustrated  and  explained.  A  book  that  every  rail- 
road man  in  the  motive-power  department  ought  to  have. 
Fully  illustrated.  New  revised  and  enlarged  edition  just 
published.  Price,  5O  cent* 

18 


TRAIN  RULE  EXAMINATIONS  MADE   EASY. 

By  G.  E.  COLLINGWOOD.  This  is  the  only  practical  work  on 
train  rules  in  print.  Every  detail  is  covered,  and  puzzling 
points  are  explained  in  simple,  comprehensive  language,  mak- 
ing it  a  practical  treatise  for  the  train  dispatcher,  engine- 
man,  trainman  and  all  others  who  have  to  dp  with  the  move- 
ments of  trains.  Contains  complete  and  reliable  information 
of  the  Standard  Code  of  Train  Rules  for  single  track.  Shows 
signals  in  colors,  as  used  on  the  different  roads.  Explains 
fully  the  practical  application  of  train  orders,  giving  a  clear 
and  definite  understanding  of  all  orders  which  may  be  used. 
256  pages.  Fully  illustrated  with  train  signals  in  co'ors. 

Price,  $1.25 

LOCOMOTIVE    BOILER    CONSTRUCTION.      By 

FRANK  A.  KLEINHANS.  The  only  book  showing  how  locomo- 
tive boilers  are  built  in  modern  shops.  Shows  all  types  of 
boilers  used;  gives  details  of  construction;  practical  facts, 
such  as  life  of  riveting  punches  and  dies,  work  done  per 
day,  allowance  for  bending  and  flanging  sheets  and  other 
data  that  means  dollars  to  any  railroad  man.  Second  edition. 
451  pages.  334  illustrations.  Six  folding  plates.  Cloth. 

Price,  $3.00 

LOCOMOTIVE  BREAKDOWNS  AND  THEIR 
REMEDIES.  By  GEO.  L.  FOWLER.  Revised  by  Wm.  W. 
Wood,  Air-Brake  Instructor.  Just  issued.  Revised  pocket 
edition.  It  is  out  of  the  queston  to  try  and  tell  you  about 
every  subject  that  is  covered  in  this  pocket  edition  of  Loco- 
motive Breakdowns.  Just  imagine  all  the  common  troubles 
that  an  engineer  may  expect  to  happen  some  time,  and  then 
add  all  of  the  unexpected  ones,  troubles  that  could  occur, 
but  that  you  had  never  thought  about,  and  you  will  find 
that  they  are  all  treated  with  the  very  best  methods  of  re- 
pair. Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear  Troubles,  Electric 
Headlight  Troubles,  as  well  as  Questions  and  Answers  on  the 
Air  Brake  are  all  included.  Eighth  edition.  294  pages. 
Fully  illustrated.  Price,  $1.OO 

LOCOMOTIVE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  GRIM- 
SHAW.  Twenty-eighth  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  This 
may  well  be  called  an  encyclopedia  of  the  locomotive.  Con- 
tains over  4,000  examination  questions  with  their  answers, 
including  among  them  those  asked  at  the  first,  second  and 
third  years'  examinations.  825  pages,  437  illustrations  and 
3  folding  plates.  Price,  $2.5O 

WESTINGHOUSE  ET  AIR-BRAKE  INSTRUC- 
TION POCKET  BOOK  CATECHISM.  By  WM.  W. 

WOOD,  Air-Brake  Instructor.  A  practical  work  containing 
examination  questions  and  answers  on  the  E.  T.  Equipment. 
Covering  what  the  E.  T.  Brake  is.  How'  it  should  be  oper- 
ated. What  to  do  when  defective.  Not  a  question  can  be 
asked  of  the  engineman  up  for  promotion  on  either  the  No. 
5  or  the  No.  6  E  T  equipment  that  is  not  asked  and  answered 
in  the  book.  If  you  want  to  thoroughly  understand  the 
E  T  equipment  get  a  copy  of  this  book.  It  covers  every  de- 
tail. Makes  air-brake  troubles  and  examinations  easy.  Fully 
illustrated  with  colored  plates,  showing  various  pressures. 
Cloth.  Price,  91. BO 

19 


PRACTICAL,  INSTRUCTOR  AND  REFERENCE 
BOOK  FOR  LOCOMOTIVE  FIREMEN  AND  EN- 
GINEERS. By  CHAS.  F.  LOCKHART.  An  entirely  new 
book  on  the  locomotive.  It  appeals  to  every  railroad  man, 
as  it  tells  him  how  things  are  done  and  the  right  way  to  do 
them.  Written  by  a  man  who  has  had  years  of  practical 
experience  in  locomotive  shops  and  on  the  road  firing  and 
running.  The  information  given  in  this  book  cannot  be 
found  in  any  other  similar  treatise.  Eight  hundred  and 
fifty-one  questions  with  their  answers  are  included,  which 
will  prove  specially  helpful  to  those  preparing  for  exam- 
ination. 368  pages,  88  illustrations.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.5O 

PREVENTION  OF  RAILROAD  ACCIDENTS, 
OR  SAFETY  IN  RAILROADING.  By  GEORGE  BRAD- 
SHAW.  This  book  is  a  heart-to-heart  talk  with  railroad  em- 
ployees, dealing  with  facts,  not  theories,  and  showing  the 
men  in  the  ranks,  from  every-day  experience,  how  accidents 
occur  and  how  they  may  be  avoided.  The  book  is  illustrated 
with  seventy  original  photographs  and  drawings  showing  the 
safe  and  unsafe  methods  of  work.  No  visionary  schemes,  no 
ideal  pictures.  Just  plain  facts  and  practical  suggestions  are 
given.  Every  railroad  employee  who  reads  the  book  is  a 
better  and  safer  man  to  have  in  railroad  service.  It  gives 
just  the  information  which  will  be  the  means  of  preventing 
many  injuries  and  deaths.  All  railroad  employees  should 
procure  a  copy;  read  it,  and  do  their  part  in  preventing 
accidents.  169  pages.  Pocket  size.  Fully  illustrated. 

Price,  5O  cents 

WALSCHAERT  LOCOMOTIVE  VALVE   GEAR. 

By  WM.  W.  WOOD.  If  you  would  thoroughly  understand  the 
Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  you  should  possess  a  copy  of  this 
book.  The  author  divides  the  subject  into  four  divisions,  as 
follows:  I.  Analysis  of  the  gear.  II.  Designing  and  erecting 
of  the  gear.  III.  Advantages  of  the  gear.  IV.  Questions 
and  answers  relating  to  the  Walschaert  Valve  Gear.  This 
book  is  specially  valuable  to  those  preparing  for  promotion. 
Third  edition.  245  pages.  Fully  illustrated.  Cloth. 

Price,  91.5O 


MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE 


MACHINE  -SHOP  ARITHMETIC.  By  COLVIN- 
CHENEY.  Most  popular  book  for  shop  men.  Shows  how  all 
shop  problems  are  worked  out  and  "why."  Includes  change 
gears  for  cutting  any  threads;  drills,  taps,  shink  and  force 
fits;  metric  system  of  measurements  and  threads.  Used  by 
all  classes  of  mechanics  and  for  instruction  in  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
and  other  schools.  Sixth  edition.  131  pages. 

Price,  5O  cents 

TOOLS  FOR  MACHINISTS  AND  WOOD 
WORKERS,  INCLUDING  INSTRUMENTS  (  OF 
MEASUREMENT.  By  JOSEPH  G.  CORNER.  The  prin- 
ciples upon  which  cutting  tools  for  wood,  metal,  and  other 
substances  are  made  are  identical,  whether  used  by  the  ma- 
chinist, the  carpenter,  or  by  any  other  skilled  mechanic  in 
their  daily  -work,  and  the  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  a 
correct  and  practical  description  of  these  tools  as  they  are 
commonly  designed,  constructed,  and  uced.  340  pages,  fully 
illustrated.  -  Price,  $3.5O 

20 


AMERICAN  TOOL  MAKING  AND  INTER- 
CHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING.  By  J.  V. 

WOODWORTH.  In  its  500-odd  pages  the  one  subject  only, 
Tool  Making,  and  whatever  relates  thereto,  is  dealt  with. 
The  work  stands  without  a  rival.  It  is  a  complete  practical 
treatise  on  the  art  of  American  Tool  Making  and  system  of 
interchangeable  manufacturing  as  carried  on  to-day  in  the 
United  States.  In  it  are  described  and  illustrated  all  of  *he 
different  types  and  classes  of  small  tools,  fixtures,  dc-  ices 
and  special  appliances  which  are  in  general  use  in  all 
machine-manufacturing  and  metal-working  establishments 
where  economy,  capacity  and  interchangeability  in  the  pro- 
duction of  machined  metal  parts  are  imperative.  The  science 
of  jig  making  is  exhaustively  discussed,  and  particular  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  drill  jigs,  boring,  profiling  and  milling  fixtures 
and  other  devices  in  which  the  parts  to  be  machined  are 
located  and  fastened  within  the  contrivances.  All  of  the 
tools,  fixtures  and  devices  illustrated  and  described  have 
been  or  are  used  for  the  actual  production  of  work,  such 
as  parts  of  drill  presses,  lathes,  patented  machinery,  type- 
writers, electrical  apparatus,  mechanical  appliances,  brass 
goods,  composition  parts,  mould  products,  sheet  metal  arti- 
cles, drop  forgings,  jewelry,  watches,  medals,  coins,  etc. 
Second  edition.  531  pages.  Price,  $4.OO 

HENLEY'S  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OP  PRACTICAL 
ENGINEERING  AND  ALLIED  TRADES.  Edited 
by  JOSEPH  G.  HORNER,  A.M.I.Mech.E.  This  book  covers  the 
entire  practice  of  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineering.  The 
best  known  experts  in  all  branches  of  engineering  have  con- 
tributed to  these  volumes.  The  Cyclopedia  is  admirably  well 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  beginner  and  the  self-taught 
practical  man,  as  well  as  the  mechanical  engineer,  designer, 
draftsman,  shop  superintendent,  foreman  and  machinist. 

It    is    a    modern    treatise    in    five    volumes.       Handsomely 
bound    in    half   morocco,    each    volume   containing   nearly    500 
pages,    with    thousands    of    illustrations,     including    diagram- 
matic   and    sectional    drawings    with    full    explanatory    details. 
Price,  for  the  complete  set  of  five  volumes,  $25. OO 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  CONSTRUCTION, 
EQUIPMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT.  By  OSCAR  E. 
PERRIGO.  The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern 
Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing  Plant  from  the  time  the 
grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  for  it  until  the  finished 
product  is  shipped.  Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contem- 
plating the  erection  of  modern  shop  buildings,  the  rebuilding 
and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction  of  Modern 
Shop  Methods,  Time  and  Cost  Systems.  It  is  a  book  written 
and  illustrated  by  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop  men 
who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  -want  facts.  It  is  the 
most  complete  all-around  book  of  its  kind  ever  published. 
400  large  quarto  pages,  225  original  and  specially-made  illus- 
trations. Price,  $5.OO 

^  < 

"SHOP  KINKS."  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  This  shows 
special  methods  of  doing  work  of  various  kinds,  and  releas- 
ing cost  of  production.  Has  hints  and  kinks  from  some  of 
the  largest  shops  in  this  country  and  Europe.  You  are  almost 
sure  to  find  some  that  apply  to  your  work,  and  in  such  a 
way  as  to  save  time  and  trouble.  400  pages.  Fifth  edi- 
tion. Cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 
21 


THE     WHOI-F*-     FIELD     OF     MECHANICAL     MOVE* 

MENTS  COVERED  BY  MR.  HISCOX'S 

TWO  BOOKS 

We  publish  two  books  by  Gardner  D.  Hiscox  that  will 
keep  you  from  "inventing"  things  that  have  been  done  be- 
fore, and  suggest  ways  of  doing  things  that  you  have  not 
thought  of  before.  Many  a  man  spends  time  and  money, 
pondering  over  some  mechanical  problem,  only  to  learn,  after 
he  has  solved  the  problem,  that  the  same  thing  has  been 
accomplished  and  put  in  practice  by  others  long  before.  Time 
and  money  spent  in  an  effort  to  accomplish  what  has  al- 
ready been  accomplished  are  time  and  money  lost.  The 
whole  field  of  mechanics,  every  known  mechanical  movement, 
and  practically  every  device  is  covered  by  these  two  books. 
If  the  thing  you  want  has  been  invented,  it  is  illustrated  in 
them.  If  it  hasn'ti  been  invented,  then  you'll  find  in  them 
the  nearest  things  to  what  you  want,  some  movement  or 
device  that  will  apply  in  your  case,  perhaps;  or  which  will 
give  you  a  key  from  which  to  work.  No  book  or  set  of 
books  ever  published  is  of  more  real  value  to  the  inventor, 
draftsman  or  practical  mechanic  than  the  two  volumes  de- 
scribed below. 

MECHANICAL,  MOVEMENTS,  POWERS  AND 
DEVICES.  By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  a  collection 
of  1,890  engravings  of  different  mechanical  motions  and  appli- 
ances, accompanied  by  appropriate  text,  making  it  a  book  of 
great  value  to  the  inventor,  the  draftsman,  and  to  all  read- 
ers with  mechanical  tastes.  The  book  is  divided  into  eighteen 
sections  or  chapters,  in  which  the  subject-matter  is  classified 
under  the  following  heads:  Mechanical  Powers;  Transmis- 
sion of  Power;  Measurement  of  Power;  Steam  Power;  Air 
Power  Appliances;  Electric  Power  and  Construction;  Navi- 
gation and  Roads;  Gearing;  Motion  and  Devices;  Control- 
ling Motion;  Horological;  Mining;  Mill  and  Factory  Appli- 
ances; Construction  and  Devices;  Drafting  Devices;  Miscel- 
laneous Devices,  etc.  Fourteenth  edition.  400  octavo  pages. 

Price,  ^2.50 

MECHANICAL,  APPLIANCES,  MECHANICAL, 
MOVEMENTS  AND  NOVELTIES  OF  CON- 
STRUCTION. By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is  a  sup- 
plementary volume  to  the  one  upon  mechanical  movements. 
Unlike  the  first  volume,  which  is  more  elementary  in  char- 
acter, this  volume  contains  illustrations  and  descriptions  of 
many  combinations  of  motions  and  of  mechanical  devices 
and  appliances  found  in  different  lines  of  machinery,  each 
device  being  shown  by  a  line  drawing  with  a  description 
showing  its  -working  parts  and  the  method  of  operation. 
From  the  multitude  of  devices  described  and  illustrated 
might  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  such  items  as  conveyors  and 
elevators,  Prony  brakes,  thermometers,  various  types  of  boil- 
ers, solar  engines,  oil-fuel  burners,  condensers,  evaporators, 
Corliss  and  other  valve  gears,  governors,  gas  engines,  water 
motors  of  various  descriptions,  air  ships,  motors  and  dynamos, 
automobile  and  motor  bicycles,  railway  lock  signals,  car  coup- 
lers, link  and  gear  motions,  ball  bearings,  breech  block 
mechanism  for  heavy  guns,  and  a  large  accumulation  of 
others  of  equal  importance.  1,000  specially  made  engravings. 
396  octavo  pages.  Third  revised  edition.  Price,  f  2.5O 

22 


MACHINE  SHOP  TOOLS  AND  SHOP  PRAC- 
TICE. By  W.  H.  VANDERVOORT.  A  work  of  555  pages  and 
673  illustrations,  describing  in  every  detail  the  construction, 
operation,  and  manipulation  of  both  hand  and  machine  tools. 
Includes  chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and  scraping  surfaces;  on 
drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies;  the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers, 
shapers,  and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters;  gear 
cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines  and  drill  work; 
grinding  machines  and  their  work;  hardening  and  tempering; 
gearing,  belting,  and  transmission  machinery;  useful  data  and 
tables.  Sixth  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $3.OO 

MODERN  MILLING  MACHINES:  THEIR  DE- 
SIGN, CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION.  By 

JOSEPH  G.  HORNER.  This  book  describes  and  illustrates  the 
Milling  Machine  and  its  work  in  such  a  plain,  clear,  and 
forceful  manner,  and  illustrates  the  subject  so  clearly  and 
completely,  that  the  up-to-date  machinist,  student,  or  me- 
chanical engineer  cannot  afford  to  do  without  the  valuable 
information  which  it  contains.  It  describes  not  only  the 
early  machines  of  this  class,  but  notes  their  gradual  develop- 
ment into  the  splendid  machines  of  the  present  day,  giving 
the  design  and  construction  of  the  various  types,  forms,  and 
special  features  produced  by  prominent  manufacturers,  Ameri- 
can and  foreign.  304  pages,  300  illustrations.  Cloth 

Price,    $4.OO 

THE  MODERN  MACHINIST.  By  JOHN  T.  USHER. 
This  book  might  be  called  a  compendium  of  shop  methods, 
showing  a  variety  of  special  tools  and  appliances  which  will 
give  new  ideas  to  many  mechanics  from  the  superintendent 
down  to  the  man  at  the  bench.  It  will  be  found  a  valuable 
addition  to  any  machinist's  library  and  should  be  consulted 
whenever  a  new  or  difficult  job  is  to  be  done,  whether  it  is 
boring,  milling,  turning,  or  planing,  as  they  are  all  treated 
in  a  practical  manner.  Fifth  edition.  320  pages,  250  illus- 
trations. Cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 

THREADS  AND  THREAD  CUTTING.  By  COLVIN 
and  STABEL.  This  clears  up  many  of  the  mysteries  of  thread- 
cutting,  such  as  double  and  triple  threads,  internal  threads, 
catching  threads,  use  of  hobs,  etc.  Contains  a  lot  of  useful 
hints  and  several  tables.  Third  edition.  Price,  25  cents 


MARINE  ENGINEERING 


MODERN  SUBMARINE  CHART.  A  cross-section 
view,  showing  clearly  and  distinctly  all  the  interior  of  a 
submarine  of  the  latest  type.  You  get  more  information  from 
this  chart  about  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  subma- 
rine than  in  any  other  way.  No  details  omitted — everything 
is  accurate  and  to  scale.  It  is  absolutely  correct  in  every 
detail,  having  been  approved  by  naval  engineers.  All  the 
machinery  and  devices  fitted  in  a  modern  submarine  boat  are 
shown,  and  to  make  the  engraving  more  readily  understood 
all  the  features  are  shown  in  operative  form,  with  officers 
and  men  in  the  act  of  performing  the  duties  assigned  to  them 
in  service  conditions.  THIS  CHART  IS  REALLY  AN 
ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  SUBMARINE.  It  is  educational  and 
worth  many  times  its  cost.  Mailed  in  a  tube  for  25  cents 

23 


MARINE  ENGINES   AND  -BOILERS,  THEIR 

DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION.  By  DR.  G.  BAUER, 
LESLIE  S.  ROBERTSON  and  S.  BRYAN  DONKIN.  In  the  words 
of  Dr.  Bauer,  the  present  -work  owes  its  origin  to  an  oft 
felt  want  of  a  condensed  treatise  embodying  the  theoretical 
and  practical  rules  used  in  designing  marine  engines  and 
boilers.  The  need  of  such  a  work  has  been  felt  by  most 
engineers  engaged  in  the  construction  and  working  of  marine 
engines,  not  only  by  the  younger  men,  but  also  by  those  of 
greater  experience.  The  fact  that  the  original  German  work 
was  written  by  the  chief  engineer  of  the  famous  Vulcan 
Works,  Stettin,  is  in  itself  a  guarantee  that  this  book  is  in 
all  respects  thoroughly  up-to-date,  and  that  it  embodies  all 
the  information  which  is  necessary  for  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  the  highest  types  of  marine  engines  and  boilers. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  motive  power  which  Dr.  Bauer  has 
placed  in  the  fast  German  liners  that  have  been  turned  out 
of  late  years  from  the  Stettin  Works  represent  the  very  best 
practice  in  marine  engineering  of  the  present  day.  The  work 
is  clearly  written,  thoroughly  systematic,  theoretically  sound; 
while  the  character  of  the  plans,  drawings,  tables,  and  sta- 
tistics is  without  reproach.  The  illustrations  are  careful  re- 
productions from  actual  working  drawings,  with  some  well- 
executed  photographic  views  of  completed  engines  and  boilers. 
744  pages,  550  illustrations  and  numerous  tables.  Cloth. 

Price,   99.0O   net 

MANUAL  TRAINING 


ECONOMICS     OF     MANUAL     TRAINING.        By 

Louis  ROUILLION.  The  only  book  that  gives  just  the  infor- 
mation needed  by  all  interested  in  manual  training,  regarding 
buildings,  equipment  and  supplies.  Shows  exactly  what  is 
needed  for  all  grades  of  the  work  from  the  Kindergarten  to 
the  High  and  Normal  School.  Gives  itemized  lists  of  every- 
thing needed  and  tells  just  what  it  ought  to  cost.  Also  shows 
where  to  buy  supplies.  Illustrated.  Second  edition.  Cloth. 

Price,   91.50 

MINING 


ORE  DEPOSITS,  WITH  A  CHAPTER  ON 
HINTS  TO  PROSPECTORS.  By  J.  P.  JOHNSON.  This 
book  gives  a  condensed  account  of  the  ore  deposits  at  present 
known  in  South  Africa.  It  is  also  intended  as  a  guide  to 
the  prospector.  Only  an  elementary  knowledge  of  geology  and 
some  mining  experience  are  necessary  in  order  to  understand 
this  work.  With  these  qualifications,  it  will  materially  assist 
one  in  his  search  for  metalliferous  mineral  occurrences  and, 
so  far  as  simple  ores  are  concerned,  should  enable  one  to 
form  some  idea  of  the  possibilities  of  any  they  may  find. 
Illustrated.  Cloth.  Price,  $2.OO 

PRACTICAL,  COAL  MINING.  By  T.  H.  COCKIN. 
An  important  work,  containing  428  pages  and  213  illustra- 
tions, complete  with  practical  details,  which  will  intuitively 
impart  <to  the  reader,  not  only  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  coal  mining,  but  also  considerable  insight  into 
allied  subjects.  The  treatise  is  positively  up  to  date  in  every 
instance,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  colliery  engi- 
neer, geologist,  mine  operator,  superintendent,  foreman,  and 
all  others  who  are  interested  in  or  connected  with  the  indus- 
try. Third  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $12. 5O 
24 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY   OF  MINING.      Bj> 

T.  H.  BYROM.  A  practical  work  for  the  use  of  all  preparing 
for  examinations  in  mining  or  qualifying  for  colliery  man- 
agers' certificates.  The  aim  of  the  author  in  this  excellent 
book  is  to  place  clearly  before  the  reader  useful  and  authori- 
tative data  which  will  render  him  valuable  assistance  in  his 
studies.  The  only  'work  of  its  kind  published.  The  infor- 
mation incorporated  in  it  will  prove  of  the  greatest  practical 
utility  to  students,  mining  engineers,  colliery  managers,  and 
all  others  who  are  specially  interested  in  ;the  present-day 
treatment  of  mining  problems.  160  pages,  illustrated. 

Price,   $2.OO 

PATTERN  MAKING 


PRACTICAL,    PATTERN    MAKING.       By    F.    W. 

BARROWS.  This  book,  now  in  its  second  edition,  is  a  com- 
prehensive and  entirely  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of 
pattern  making,  illustrating  pattern  work  in  both  wood  and 
metal,  and  with  definite  instructions  on  the  use  of  plaster 
of  paris  in  the  trade.  It  gives  specific  and  detailed  descrip- 
tions of  the  materials  used  by  pattern  makers  and  describes 
the  tools;  both  those  for  the  bench  and  the  more  interesting 
machine  tools;  having  complete  chapters  on  the  lathe,  the 
circular  saw  and  the  band  saw.  It  gives  many  examples  of 
pattern  work,  each  one  fully  illustrated  and  explained  with 
much  detail.  These  examples,  in  their  great  variety,  offer 
much  that  will  be  found  of  interest  to  all  pattern  makers, 
and  especially  to  the  younger  ones,  who  are  seeking  informa- 
tion on  the  more  advanced  branches  of  their  trade.  Con- 
taining nearly  350  pages  and  170  illustrations.  Second  edi- 
tion, revised  and  enlarged.  Price,  $2. GO 


PERFUMERY 


HENLEY'S  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  BOOK  OF 
RECEIPTS,  FORMULAS  AND  PROCESSES.  Edited 
by  G.  D.  Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  techno-chemical  receipt 
book  published.  Contains  over  10,000  practical  receipts,  many 
of  which  will  prove  of  special  value  to  the  perfumer.  $3.OO 

PERFUMES  AND  COSMETICS,  THEIR  PREP- 
ARATION AND  MANUFACTURE.  By  G.  W. 

ASKINSON,  Perfumer.  A  comprehensive  treatise,  in  which 
there  has  been  nothing  omitted  that  could  be  of  value  to 
the  perfumer  or  manufacturer  of  toilet  preparations.  Com- 
plete directions  for  making  handkerchief  perfumes,  smelling- 
salts,  sachets,  fumigating  pastilles;  preparations  for  the  care 
of  the  skin,  the  mouth,  the  hair,  cosmetics,  hair  dyes  and 
other  toilet  articles  are  given,  also  a  detailed  description  of 
aromatic  substances;  their  nature,  tests  of  purity,  and  whole- 
sale manufacture,  including  a  chapter  on  synthetic  products, 
with  formulas  for  their  use.  A  book  of  general,  as  well  as 
professional  interest,  meeting  the  wants  not  only  of  the  drug- 
gist and  perfume  manufacturer,  but  also  of  the  general  public. 
Fourth  edition  much  enlarged  and  brought  up-to-date.  Nearly 
400  pages,  illustrated.^  Price,  $5.OO 

25 


PLUMBING 

STANDARD    PRACTICAL,    PLUMBING.      By    R. 

M.  STARBUCK.  This  is  a  complete  treatise  and  covers  the 
subject  of  modern  plumbing  in  all  its  branches.  It  treats  ex- 
haustively on  the  skilled  work  of  the  plumber  and  the  theory 
underlying  plumbing  devices  and  operations,  and  commends 
itself  at  once  to  everyone  working  in  any  branch  of  the 
plumbing  trade.  A  large  amount  of  space  is  devoted  'to  a 
very  complete  and  practical  treatment  of  the  subjects  of  hot 
water  supply,  circulation  and  range  boiler  work.  Another 
valuable  feature  is  the  special  chapter  on  drawing  for 
plumbers.  The  illustrations,  of  which  rftere  are  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-seven,  one  hundred  being  full-page  plates, 
were  drawn  expressly  for  this  book  and  show  the  most 
modern  and  best  American  practice  in  plumbing  construction. 
6l/2x9lA.  Cloth,  406  pages,  347  illustrations.  Price,  $3. GO 

MECHANICAL,    DRAWING    FOR    PLUMBERS. 

By  R.  M.  STARBUCK.  A  concise,  comprehensive  and  practical 
treatise  on  the  subject  of  mechanical  drawing  in  its  various 
modern  applications  to  the  work  of  all  who  are  in  any  way 
connected  with  the  plumbing  trade.  Nothing  will  so  helo 
the  plumber  in  estimating  and  in  explaining  work  to  cus- 
tomers and  workmen  as  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  and  to  the 
workman  it  is  of  inestimable  value  if  he  is  to  rise  above  his 
position  to  positions  of  greater  responsibility.  150  illus- 
trations. Price,  $1.50 

MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED.      By   R. 

M.  STARBUCK.  The  author  of  this  book,  Mr.  R.  M.  Starbuck, 
is  one  of  the  leading  authorities  on  plumbing  in  the  United 
States.  The  book  represents  the  highest  standard  of  plumbing 
work.  A  very  comprehensive  work,  illustrating  and  describ- 
ing the  drainage  and  ventilation  of  dwellings,  apartments  and 
public  buildings.  The  very  latest  and  most  approved  methods 
in  all  branches  of  sanitary  installation  are  given.  The  stand- 
ard book  for  master  plumbers,  architects,  builders,  plumbing 
inspectors,  boards  of  health,  boards  of  plumbing  examiners 
and  for  the  property  owner,  as  well  as  the  workman  and 
apprentice.  It  contains  fifty-five  entirely  new  and  large  full 
pages  of  illustrations  with  descriptive  text,  all  of  which  have 
been  made  specially  for  this  work.  These  plates  show  all 
kinds  of  modern  plumbing  work.  Each  plate  is  accc  npanied 
by  several  pages  of  text,  giving  notes  and  practical  sugges- 
tions, sizes  of  pipe,  proper  measurements  for  setting  up  work, 
etc.  Suggestions  on  estimating  plumbing  construction  are 
also  included.  400  octavo  pages,  fully-  illustrated  by  55 
full-page  engravings,  Price,  $4. GO 

RECIPE  BOOK 

HENLEY'S      TWENTIETH     CENTURY     BOOK 
OF     RECIPES,     FORMULAS     AND      PROCESSES. 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  techno- 
chemical  formulae  book  published,  including  over  10,000  se- 
lected scientific,  chemical,  technological  and  practical  recipes 
and  processes.  This  book  of  800  pages  is  the  most  complete 
book  of  recipes  ever  published,  giving  thousands  of  recipes 
for  the  manufacture  of  valuable  articles  for  everyday  use. 
Hints,  helps,  practical  ideas  and  secret  processes  are  revealed 
within  its  pages.  It  covers  every  branch  of  the  yseful  arts 

26 


and  tells  thousands  of  ways  of  making  money  and  is  just  the 
book  everyone  should  have  at  his  command.  The  pages  arc 
filled  with  matters  of  intense  interest  and  immeasurable  prac- 
tical value  to  the  photographer,  the  perfumer,  the  painter, 
the  manufacturer  of  glues,  pastes,  cements  and  mucilages, 
the  physician,  the  druggist,  the  electrician,  the  brewer,  the 
engineer,  the  foundryman,  the  machinist,  the  potter,  the 
tanner,  the  confectioner,  the  chiropodist,  the  manufacturer 
.of  chemical  novelties  and  toilet  preparations,  the  dyer,  the 
electroplater,  the  enameler,  the  engraver,  the  provisioner,  the 
glass  worker,  the  goldbeater,  the  watchmaker  and  jeweler, 
the  ink  manufacturer,  the  optician,  the  farmer,  the  dairyman, 
the  paper  maker,  the  metal  worker,  the  soap  maker,  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  technologist  in  general.  A  book 
to  which  you  may  turn  with  confidence  that  you  will  find 
what  you  are  looking  for.  A  mine  of  information  up-to-date 
in  every  respect.  Contains  an  immense  number  of  formulas 
that  every  one  ought  to  have  that  are  not  found  in  any  other 
work.  New  edition.  Cloth  binding,  $3.OO;  Half  Morocco 
binding,  Price,  $4.OO 


RUBBER 


HENLEY'S      TWENTIETH     CENTURY     BOOK 
OP    RECEIPTS,    FORMULAS    AND     PROCESSES. 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.   Hiscox.      Contains  upward  of   10,000 

Practical    receipts,    including   among   them    formulas   on    arti- 
cial  rubber.  Price,    $3.OO 

RUBBER  HAND   STAMPS   AND  THE  MANIP- 
ULATION   OF    INDIA    RUBBER.        By    T.    O'CoNOR 

SLOANE.  This  book  gives  full  details  of  all  points,  treating 
in  a  concise  and  simple  manner  the  elements  of  nearly  every- 
thing it  is  necessary  to  understand  for  a  commencement  in 
any  branch  of  the  India  rubber  manufacture.  The  making 
of  all  kinds  of  rubber  hand  stamps,  small  articles  of  India 
rubber,  U.  S.  Government  composition,  dating  hand  stamps, 
the  manipulation  of  sheet  rubber,  toy  balloons,  India  rubber 
solutions,  cements,  blackings,  renovating  varnish,  and  treat- 
ment for  India  rubber  shoes,  etc.;  the  hektograph  stamp  inks, 
and  miscellaneous  notes,  with  a  short  account  of  the  dis- 
covery, collection  and  manufacture  of  India  rubber  are  set 
forth  in  a  manner  designed  to  be  readily  understood,  the  ex- 
planation being  plain  and  simple.  Third  edition.  175  pages 
illustrated.  Cloth,  "  * 


Price, 

SAWS 


SAW  FILING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SAWS. 

By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  A  practical  hand  book  on  filing, 
gumming,  swaging,  hammering  and  the  brazing  of  band  saws, 
the  speed,  work,  and  power  to  run  circular  saws,  etc.  A 
handy  book  for  those  who  have  charge  of  saws,  or  for  those 
mechanics  who  do  their  own  filing,  as  it  deals  with  the  proper 
shape  and  pitches  of  saw  teeth  of  all  kinds  and  gives  many 
useful  hints  and  rules  for  gumming,  setting,  and  fifing,  and  is 
a  practical  aid  to  those  who  use  saws  for  any  purpose.  Third 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated.  Price,  $1.OO 
27 


SCREW  CUTTING 

THREADS  AND  THREAD  CUTTING.  By  Cot. 
VIN  and  STABEL.  This  clears  up  many  of  the  mysteries  of 
thread  cutting,  such  as  double  and  triple  threads,  internal 
threads,  catching  threads,  use  of  hobs,  etc.  Contains  a  lot  of 
useful  hints  and  several  tables.  Third  edition. 

Price,  25  cent* 


STEAM  ENGINEERING 

AMERICAN  STATIONARY  ENGINEERING.  By 

W.  E.  CRANE.  A  new  book  by  a  well-known  author.  Begins 
at  the  boiler  room  and  takes  in  the  whole  power  plant.  Con- 
tains the  result  of  years  of  practical  experience  in  all  sorts 
of  engine  rooms  and  gives  exact  information  that  canno*  be 
found  elsewhere.  It's  plain  enough  for  practical  men  and  yet 
of  value  to  those  high  in  the  profession.  Has  a  complete  ex- 
amination for  a  license.  Second  edition.  28'S  pages.  Illus- 
trated. Cloth.  Price,  $2.OO 

STEAM  ENGINE  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  GRIM- 
SHAW.  This  volume  of  413  pages  is  not  only  a  catechism  on 
the  question  and  answer  principle,  but  it  contains  formulas 
and  wprked-out  answers  for  all  the  steam  problems  that 
appertain  to  the  operation  and  management  of  the  steam 
engine.  Illustrations  of  various  valves  and  valve  gear  with 
their  principles  of  operation  are  given.  34  tables  that  are  in- 
dispensable to  every  engineer  and  fireman  that  wishes  to  be 
progressive  and  is  ambitious  to  become  master  of  his  calling 
are  within  .its  pages.  It  is  a  most  valuable  instructor  in 
the  service  of  steam  engineering.  Leading  engineers  have 
recommended  it  as  a  valuable  educator  for  the  beginner  as 
well  as  a  reference  book  for  the  engineer.  Sixteenth  edition. 

Price,   $2.00 

BOILER  ROOM  CHART.  By  GEO.  L.  KOWLER.  A 
chart — size  14  x  28  inches — showing  in  isometric  perspective 
the  mechanisms  belonging  in  a  modern  boiler  room.  Water 
tube  boilers,  ordinary  grates  and  mechanical  stokers,  feed 
water  heaters  and  pumps  comprise  the  equipment.  The 
various  parts  are  shown  broken  or  removed,  so  that  the  in- 
ternal construction  is  fully  illustrated.  Each  part  is  given 
a  reference  number,  and  these,  with  the  corresponding  name, 
are  given  in  a  glossary  printed  at  the  sides.  This  chart  is 
really  a  dictionary  of  the  boiler  room — the  names  of  more 
than  200  parts  being  given.  It  is  educational — worth  many 
times  its  cost.  Price,  25  cent* 

EMINENT  ENGINEERS.  By  DWIGHT  GODDARD. 
Everyone  who  appreciates  the  effect  of  such  great  inventions 
as  the  steam  engine,  steamboat,  locomotive,  sewing  machine, 
steel  working,  and  other  fundamental  discoveries,  is  inter- 
ested in  knowing  a  little  about  the  men  who  made  them  and 
their  achievements.  Mr.  Goddard  has  selected  thirty-two  of 
the  world's  engineers  who  have  contributed  most  largely  to 
the  advancement  of  our  civilization  by  mechanical  means, 
giving  only  such  facts  as  are  of  general  interest  and  in  a  way 
which  appeals  to  all,  whether  mechanics  or  not.  280  pages, 
35  illustrations.  .  Price,  f  1.5O 

28 


ENGINE  RUNNER'S  CATECHISM.  By  ROBERT  T. 
GRIMSHAW.  Tells  how  to  erect,  adjust  and  run  the  princi- 
pal steam  engines  in  use  in  the  United  States.  The  work 
is  of  a  handy  size  for  the  pocket.  To  young  engineers  this 
catechism  will  be  of  great  value,  especially  to  those  who  may 
be  preparing  to  go  forward  to  be  examined  for  certificates 
of  competency;  and  to  engineers  generally  it  'will  be  of  no 
little  service,  as  they  will  find  in  this  volume  more  really 
practical  and  useful  information  than  is  to  be  found  any- 
where else  within  a  like  compass.  387  pages.  Seventh 
edition.  Price,  $ 2.0O 

MODERN  STEAM  ENGINEERING  IN  THEORY 
AND  PRACTICE.  By  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  This  is 
a  complete  and  practical  work  issued  for  stationary  engi- 
neers and  firemen  dealing  with  the  care  and  management 
of  boilers,  engines,  pumps,  superheated  steam,  refrigerating 
machinery,  dynamos,  motors,  elevators,  air  compressors,  and 
all  other  branches  with  which  the  modern  engineer  must  be 
familiar.  Nearly  200  questions  with  their  answers  on  steam 
and  electrical  engineering,  likely  to  be  asked  by  the  exam- 
ining board,  are  included.  Third  edition.  487  pages,  405 
engravings.  Cloth.  Price,  $3.OO 

HORSE  POWER  CHART.  Shows  _the  horse  power 
of  any  stationary  engine  without  calculation.  No  matter 
what  the  cylinder  diameter  or  stroke;  the  steam  pressure 
or  cut-off;  the  revolutions,  or  whether  condensing  or  non- 
condensing,  it's  all  there.  Easy  to  use,  accurate,  and  saves 
time  and  calculations.  Especially  useful  to  engineers  and 
designers.  ,  Price,  5O  cents 

STEAM  ENGINEER'S  ARITHMETIC.  By  COL- 
VIN-CHENEY.  A  practical  pocket  book  for  the  steam  engi- 
neer. Shows  how  to  work  the  problems  of  the  engine  room 
and  shows  "why."  Tells  how  to  figure  horse-power  of  en- 
gines and  boilers;  area  of  boilers;  has  tables  of  areas  and 
circumferences;  steam  tables;  has  a  dictionary  of  engineering 
terms.  Puts  you  onto  all  of  the  little  kinks  in  figuring  what- 
ever there  is  to  figure  around  a  power  plant.  Tells  you  about 
the  heat  unit;  absolute  zero;  adiabatic  expansion;  duty  of 
engines;  factor  of  safety;  and  1,001  other  things;  and  every- 
thing is  plain  and  simple — not  the  hardest  way  to  figure, 
but  the  easiest.  Second  edition.  Price,  5O  cents 

STEAM  PIPES 

STEAM  PIPES:  THEIR  DESIGN  AND  CON- 
STRUCTION. By  WM.  H.  BOOTH.  The  work  is  well 
illustrated  in  regard  to  pipe  joints,  expansion  offsets,  flexible 
joints,  and  self-contained  sliding  joints  for  taking  up  the  ex- 
pansion of  long  pipes.  In  fact,  the  chapters  on  the  flow  of 
steam  and  expansion  of  pipes  are  most  valuable  to  all  steam 
fitters  and  users.  The  pressure  strength  of  pipes  and  method 
of  hanging  them  is  'well  treated  and  illustrated.  Valves  and 
by-passes  are  fully  illustrated  and  described,  as  are  also  flange 
joints  and  their  proper  proportions.  Exhaust  heads  and  sepa- 
rators. One  of  the  most  valuable  chapters  is  that  on  siiper- 
heated  steam  and  the  saving  of  steam  by  insulation  with  the 
various  kinds  of  felting  and  other  materials,  with  comparison 
tables  of  the  loss  of  heat  in  thermal  units  from  naked  and 
felted  steam  pipes.  Second  edition.  Contains  187  pages. 
Cloth.  Price,  ?2.OO 

29 


STEAM  HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


PRACTICAL,  STEAM,  HOT-WATER  HEATING 
AND  VENTILATION.  By  A.  G.  KING.  This  book  has 
been  prepared  for  the  use  of  all  engaged  in  the  business  of 
steam,  hot-water  heating  and  ventilation.  Tells  how  to  get 
heating  contracts,  how  to  install  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus,  the  best  business  methods  to  be  used,  with  "Tricks 
of  the  Trade"  for  shop  use.  Rules  and  data  for  estimating 
radiation  and  cost  and  such  tables  and  information  as  make 
it  an  indispensable  work  for  everyone  interested  in  steam, 
hot-water  heating  and  ventilation.  It  describes  all  the  prin- 
cipal systems  of  steam,  hot-water,  vacuum,  vapor  and  vacuum- 
vapor  heating,  together  with  the  new  accelerated  systems  of 
hot-water  circulation,  including  chapters  on  up-to-date  methods 
of  ventilation  and  the  fan  or  blower  system  of  heating  and 
ventilation.  Second  edition.  367  pages,  300  detailed  engrav- 
ings. Cloth.  Price,  $3.OO 

5OO  PLAIN  ANSWERS  TO  DIRECT  QUES- 
TIONS ON  STEAM,  HOT-WATER,  VAPOR  AND 
VACUUM  HEATING  PRACTICE.  By  ALFRED  G. 
KING.  This  work,  just  off  the  press,  is  arranged  in  question 
and  answer  form;  it  is  intended  as  a  guide  and  text-book  for 
the  younger'  inexperienced  fitter  and  as  a  reference  book  for 
all  fitters.  All  long  and  tedious  discussions  and  descriptions 
formerly  considered  so  important  have  been  eliminated,  and 
the  theory  and  laws  of  heat  and  the  various  old  and  modern 
methods  and  appliances  used  for  heating  and  ventilating  are 
treated  in  a  concise  manner.  This  is  the  standard  Question 
and  Answer  examination  book  on  Steam  and  Hot  Water 
Heating,  etc.  200  pages,  127  illustrations.  Octavo. 
Cloth.  Price,  f  1.50 

STEEL 


HARDENING,  TEMPERING,  ANNEALING, 
AND  FORGING  OP  STEEL,.  By  J.  V.  WOODWORTH. 
A  book  containing  special  directions  for  the  successful  hard- 
ening and  tempering  of  all  steel  tools.  Milling  cutters,  taps, 
thread  dies,  reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow  mills, 
punches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet-  metal  working  tools, 
shear  blades,  saws,  fine  cutlery  and  metal-cutting  tools  of  all 
descriptions,  as  well  as  for  all  implements  of  steel,  both  large 
and  small,  the  simplest,  and  most  satisfactory  hardening  and 
tempering  processes  are  presented.  320  pages,  250  illustra- 
tions. Fourth  edition.  Cloth.  Price,  $2.5O 

STEEL,:  ITS  SELECTION,  ANNEALING,  HAR- 
DENING AND  TEMPERING.  By  E.  R.  MARKHAM. 
This  work  was  formerly  known  as  "The  American  Steel 
Worker,"  but  on  the  publication  of  the  new,  revised  edition, 
the  publishers  deemed  it  advisable  to  change  its  title  to  a 
more  suitable  one.  This  is  the  standard  work  on  hardening, 
tempering,  and  annealing  steel  of  all  kinds.  This  book  tells 
how  to  select,  and  how  to  work,  temper,  harden,  and  anneal 
steel  for  everything  on  earth.  It  is  the  standard  book  on 
selecting,  hardening,  and  tempering  all  grades  of  steel. 
400  pages.  Very  fully  illustrated.  Fourth  edition. 

Price,  $12. 5O 

30 


HENLEY'S      TWENTIETH     CENTURY     BOOK 
OP    RECEIPTS,    FORMULAS    AND     PROCESSES. 

Edited  by  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox.  The  most  valuable  techno- 
chemical  receipt  book  published,  giving,  among  other  practical 
receipts,  methods  of  annealing,  coloring,  tempering,  welding, 
plating,  polishing  and  cleaning  steel.  Price,  $3.OO 


TRACTORS 


THE  HOME-MADE  TRACTOR.  By  XENO  W. 
PUTNAM.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  construction  .of  small 
and  special  purpose  tractors  in  the  home  workshop  from  the 
odds  and  ends  of  cast-off  machinery  available  on  nearly  every 
farm.  This  work  shows  the  farmer  how,  at  small  expense, 
to  make  his  gasoline  engine  conveniently  portable  by  making 
it  self-moving;  It  guides  him  in  the  construction  of  a  prac- 
tical farm  tractor  that  is  capable  of  hauling,  harvesting,  plow- 
ing and  doing  all  the  ordinary  farm  work  in  which  the  pro- 
pulsion of  other  machinery  is  required.  Twenty-four  chapters 
are  contained  in  this  book  and  it  is  illustrated  with  over  125 
working  engravings  showing  many  successfully  built  and  tested 
home-made  tractors.  (Ready  shortly.) 

THE  MODERN  GAS  TRACTOR.  By  VICTOR  W. 
PAGE.  A  complete  treatise  describing  all  types  and  sizes  of 
gasoline,  kerosene,  and  oil  tractors.  Considers  design  and 
construction  exhaustively,  gives  complete  instruction  for  care, 
operation  and  repair,  outlines  all  practical  applications  on  the 
road  and  in  the  field.  The  best  and  latest  work  on  -  farm 
tractors  and  tractor  power  plants.  A  work  needed  by  farmers, 
students,  blacksmiths,  mechanics,  salesmen,  implement  dealers, 
designers  and  engineers.  500  pages.  Nearly  300  illustrations 
and  folding  plates.  Price,  $2.OO 


TURBINES 


MARINE  STEAM  TURBINES.  By ;:  D$  Q,  BAUER 
and  O.  LASCHE.  Assisted  by  E.  Ludwig  and".  H.  Vflgel. 
Translated  from  the  German  and  edited  by  M.  G.  .£.  Swallow. 
The  book  is  essentially  practical  and  discusses  ttirbines  in 
which  the  full  expansion  of  steam  passes  through  a  number 
of  separate  turbines  arranged  for  driving  two  or  more  sh.afts, 
as  in  the  Parsons  system,  and  turbines  in  which*  the  complete 
expansion  of  steam  from  inlet  to  exhaust  pressure  occurs  in 
a  turbine  on  one  shaft,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Curtis  machines. 
It  will  enable  a  designer  to  carry  out  all  the  ordinary  calcu- 
lation necessary  for  the  construction  of  steam  turbines,  hence 
it  fills  a  want  which  is  hardly  met  by  larger  and  more  theo- 
retical works.  Numerous  tables,  curves  and  diagrams  will  be 
found,  which  explain  with  remarkable  lucidity  the  reason 
why  turbine  blades  are  designed  as  they  are,  .the  course  which 
steam  takes  through  turbines  of  various  types,  the  thermody- 
namics of  steam  turbine  calculation,  the  influence  of  vacuum 
on  steam  consumption  of  steam  turbines,  etc.  In  a  word, 
the  very  information  which  a  designer  and  builder  of  steam 
turbines  most  requires.  Large  octavo,  214  pagesi  Fully  il- 
lustrated and  containing  18  tables,  including  an  entropy  chart. 

Price,  $3.5O  net 

*  31 


WATCH  MAKING 


WATCHMAKER'S  HANDBOOK.  By  CLAUDIUS 
SAUNIER.  No  work  issued  can  compare  with  this  book  for 
clearness  and  completeness.  It  contains  498  pages  and  is  in- 
tended as  a  workshop  companion  for  those  engaged  in  watch- 
making and  allied  mechanical  arts.  Nearly  250  engravings 
and  14  plates  are  included.  This  is  the  standard  work  on 
watchmaking.  Price,  93. OO 

The  Most  Valuable  Techno-Chemical  Recipe  Book 
Ever  Offered  to  the  Public! 

Henley's  Twentieth  Century  Book  of 

RECIPES,  FORMULAS 
AND  PROCESSES 

Price  $3.00 

It  contains  more  than  10,000  prac- 
tical recipes  and  formulas  for 
everyday  use  in  business,  at  home, 
or  in  the  factory.  Everything  you 
want  to  make — Antiseptics,  Water 
proofing,  Lubricants,  Rust  Preven- 
tives, Dyes,  Filters,  Cleaning  Prep, 
arations,  Enameling,  Beverages, 
Inks,  Adhesives,  Polishes,  Disin- 
fectants, Flavorings,  Cosmetics, 
Ceramics,  etc.,  etc.  Photography 
is  treated  in  all  its  various  branches, 
as  are  also  Plating,  Painting,  Leather 
Work,  etc.  Tests  for  Food  Adul- 
terants are  fully  covered;  how  to 
make  fly  paper;  to  color  flowers 
artificially;  to  estimate  weight  of 
ice  by  measurement;  to  make 

materials  fireproof;  to  work  with  metals— aluminum,  brass,  etc.; 

to  make  anything  and  everything,  from  A  to  Z. 

|  A  fl  A  A  Practical  Formulas  and  Processes 
1U,UUU  The  Best  Way  to  Make  Everything 

ONE  USEFUL  RECIPE  WILL  BE  WORTH  MORE 
THAN  TEN  TIMES  THE  PRICE  OF  THE  BOOK 

(See  page  26  for  further  description  of  the  book.) 
32 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


LD  21-100m-12, '43  (8796s) 


Oaylord  Bros. 

Makers 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
PAT.  JAN.  2 1,  1908 


~TA- 


402.356 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


